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Prehistoric Asia refers to events in Asia during the period of human existence prior to the invention of writing systems or the documentation of recorded history. This includes portions of the Eurasian land mass currently or traditionally considered as the continent of Asia. The continent is commonly described as the region east of the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian Sea, Black Sea and Red Sea, bounded by the Pacific, Indian, and Arctic Oceans.[1] This article gives an overview of the many regions of Asia during prehistoric times.

Origin of Asian hominids

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Main article: Human evolution
Modern reproduction of a skull of Homo erectus georgicus from Dmanisi in modern Georgia (Caucasus), the earliest evidence for the presence of early humans outside the African continent.
Illustration of what Peking Man may have looked like.

Early hominids

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About 1.8 million years ago, Homo erectus left the African continent.[2] This species, whose name means "upright man", is believed to have lived in East and Southeast Asia from 1.8 million to 40,000 years ago.[3] Their regional distinction is classified as Homo erectus stricto.[4] The females weighed an average of 52 kilograms (115 lb) and were on average 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) tall. The males weighed an average of 58 kilograms (128 lb) and were on average 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) tall. They are believed to have had a vegetarian diet with some meat.[3] They had small brains, when compared to the later Homo sapiens and used simple tools.[2]

The earliest human fossils found outside of Africa are skulls and mandibles of the Asian Homo erectus from Dmanisi (modern Republic of Georgia) in Caucasus, which is a land corridor that led to North Asia from Africa and Near East or Middle East. They are approximately 1.8 Ma (Megaannum, or million years) old. Archaeologists have named these fossils Homo erectus georgicus.[2][5][6] There were also some remains that looked similar to the Homo ergaster, which may mean that there were several species living about that time in Caucasus. Bones of animals found near the human remains included short-necked giraffes, ostriches, ancient rhinoceroses from Africa and saber-toothed cats and wolves from Eurasia.[2] Tools found with the human fossils include simple stone tools like those used in Africa: a cutting flake, core and a chopper.[2]

The oldest Southeast Asian Homo fossils, known as the Homo erectus Java Man, were found between layers of volcanic debris in Java, Indonesia.[7] Fossils representing 40 Homo erectus individuals, known as Peking Man, were found near Beijing at Zhoukoudian that date to about 400,000 years ago. The species was believed to have lived for at least several hundred thousand years in China,[3] and possibly until 200,000 years ago in Indonesia. They may have been the first to use fire and cook food.[8]

Skulls were found in Java of Homo erectus that dated to about 300,000 years ago.[7] A skull was found in Central China that was similar to the Homo heidelbergensis remains that were found in Europe and Africa and are dated between 200,000 and 50,000 years ago.[9]

Homo sapiens

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Between 60,000 and 100,000 years ago, Homo sapiens came to Southeast Asia and Australia by migrating from Africa, known as the "Out of Africa" model.[3][7][nb 1] Homo sapiens are believed to have migrated through the Middle East on their way out of Africa about 100,000 years ago.[10][11] Near Nazareth, remains of skeletons, including a double grave of a mother and child, dating to about 93,000 years ago were found in a Jebel Qafzeh cave. Included among the remains was a skeleton of another species which was not Homo sapiens; it had a "distinct and undivided browridge that is continuous across the eye sockets" and other discrepancies.[10]

Researchers believe that the modern human, or Homo sapiens, migrated about 60,000 years ago to South Asia along the Indian Ocean, because people living in the most isolated areas of the Indian Ocean have the oldest non-African DNA markers. Humans migrated into inland Asia, likely by following herds of bison and mammoth and arrived in southern Siberia by about 43,000 years ago and some people moved south or east from there.[12][13] By about 40,000 years ago Homo sapiens made it to Malaysia, where a skull was found on Borneo in Niah Cave.[11] Modern humans interbred with an archaic human species called Denisovans on the islands of Southeast Asia.[14]

Homo sapiens females weighed an average of 54 kilograms (119 lb) and were on average 1.6 metres (5.2 ft) tall. The males weighed an average of 65 kilograms (143 lb) and were on average 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) tall. They were omnivorous. As compared to earlier hominids, Homo sapiens had larger brains and used more complex tools, including, blades, awls, and microliths out of antlers, bones and ivory. They were the only hominids known to develop language, make clothes, create shelters, and store food underground for preservation. In addition, language was formed, rituals were created, and art was made.[15]

Prehistory by region

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North Asia

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The Ancient Paleo-Siberians formed from the Ancient North Eurasians and Ancient Northern East Asian ancestry, and are closely connected to the first wave of humans into the Americas.

Above China is North Asia, in which Siberia,[16] and Russian Far East are extensive geographical regions which has been part of Russia since the seventeenth century.

At the southwestern edge of North Asia is Caucasus. It is a region at the border of Europe and Asia, situated between the Black and the Caspian seas. Caucasus is home to the Caucasus Mountains, which contain Europe's highest mountain, Mount Elbrus. The southern part of the Caucasus consists of independent sovereign states, whereas the northern parts are under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation.

Evidence from full genomic studies suggests that the first people in the Americas diverged from Ancient East Asians about 36,000 years ago and expanded northwards into Siberia, where they encountered and interacted with a different Paleolithic Siberian population (known as Ancient North Eurasians), giving rise to both Paleosiberian peoples and Ancient Native Americans, which later migrated towards the Beringian region, became isolated from other populations, and subsequently populated the Americas.[17][18]

The Armenian Highland, in Prehistoric Armenia, shows traces of settlement from the Neolithic era. The Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region is one of the earliest known prehistoric culture in the area, carbon-dated to roughly 6000–4000 BC. Another early culture in the area is the Kura-Araxes culture, assigned to the period of ca. 3300–2000 BC, succeeded by the Georgian Trialeti culture (ca. 3000–1500 BC).

The prehistory of Georgia is the period between the first human habitation of the territory of modern-day nation of Georgia and the time when Assyrian and Urartian, and more firmly, the Classical accounts, brought the proto-Georgian tribes into the scope of recorded history.

See also: Prehistoric Azerbaijan and Prehistoric Siberia

Central Asia

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Main article: Prehistory of Central Asia
Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic steppes and across Central Asia, and encounter with Ancient Northeast Asian populations.[19]

Central Asia is the core region of the Asian continent and stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east and from Afghanistan in the south to Russia in the north. It is also sometimes referred to as Middle Asia, and, colloquially, "the 'stans" (as the six countries generally considered to be within the region all have names ending with the Persian suffix "-stan", meaning "land of")[20] and is within the scope of the wider Eurasian continent. The countries are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan.

East Asia

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East Asia, for the purpose of this discussion, includes the prehistoric regions of China, Taiwan, Tibet, Xinjiang and Korea. Study of Prehistoric China includes its paleolithic sites, neolithic cultures, Chalcolithic cultures, the Chinese Bronze Age, and the Bronze Age sites.

Ancestors of East Asians split from other human populations possibly as early as 70,000 to 50,000 years ago.[21][22] Ancestral East Asians, which gave rise to modern East/Southeast Asians, Polynesians, Siberians and Native Americans, expanded in multiple waves outgoing from Southern China northwards and southwards respectively. Population genomic data suggest that Paleolithic East Asian show continuity to modern East Asians and related groups.[23]

China

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The earliest traces of early humans, Homo erectus, in East Asia have been found in China. Fossilized remains of Yuanmou Man were found in Yunnan province in southwest China and have been dated to 1.7 Ma. Stone tools from the Nihewan Basin of the Hebei province in northern China are 1.66 million years old.[24]

Early humans were attracted to what was the warm, fertile climate of Central China more than 500,000 years ago.[25] Skeletal remains of about 45 individuals, known collectively as Peking Man were found in a limestone cave in Yunnan province at Zhoukoudian. They date from 400,000 to 600,000 years ago and some researchers believe that evidence of hearths and artifacts means that they controlled fire, although this is challenged by other archaeologists. About 800 miles west of this site, near Xi'an in the Shaanxi province are remains of a hominid who lived earlier than Peking Man.[25]

Between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago, humans lived in various places in China, such as Guanyindong[26] in Guizhou, where they made Levallois stone artefacts. After 100,000 BCE, Homo sapiens lived in China and by 25,000 BCE the modern humans lived in isolated locations on the North China Plain, where they fished and hunted for food. They made artifacts of bone and shell.[25]

Model of a Yangshao culture village (4800–2500 BC)

Starting about 5000 BCE humans lived in Yellow River valley settlements where they farmed, fished, raised pigs and dogs for food, and grew millet and rice. Begun during the late Neolithic period, they were the earliest communities in China. Its artifacts include ceramic pots, fishhooks, knives, arrows and needles. In the northwest Shaanxi, Gansu and Henan provinces two cultures were established by about the sixth millennium BCE. They produced red pottery. Other cultures that emerged, that also made pottery, include the Bao-chi and Banpo people of Shaanxi and the Chishan people of Hebei.[25]

The Yangshao people, who existed between 5000 and 2500 BCE, were farmers who lived in distinctive dwelling which were partly below the surface. Their pottery included designs which may have been symbols that later evolved into written language. Their villages were in western Henan, southwestern Shanxi and central Shaanxi. Between 2500 and 1000 BCE the Longshan culture existed in southern, eastern and northeastern China and into Manchuria. They had superior farming and ceramic making techniques to that of the Yangshao people and had ritualistic burial practices and worshiped their ancestors.[27] Subsequent dynasties include the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, when the Old Chinese language developed.[28]

Bronze Age China Dynasties
Zhōu DynastyShang DynastyXia DynastyLongshan cultureMajiayao culture
Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

Taiwan

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The Prehistory of Taiwan ended with the arrival of the Dutch East India Company in 1624, and is known from archaeological finds throughout the island. The earliest evidence of human habitation dates back 50,000 years or more,[29] when the Taiwan Strait was exposed by lower sea levels as a land bridge. Around 5000 years ago farmers from mainland China settled on the island. These people are believed to have been speakers of Austronesian languages, which dispersed from Taiwan across the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The current Taiwanese aborigines are believed to be their descendants.

Korea

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Prehistoric Korea is the era of human existence in the Korean Peninsula for which written records did not exist. It, however, constitutes the greatest segment of the Korean past and is the major object of study in the disciplines of archaeology, geology, and palaeontology.

Japan

[edit]

The study of Prehistoric Japan includes Japanese Paleolithic and Jōmon.

Near East

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Further information: Prehistory of the Levant and Prehistory of Iran

The Near East is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia. Despite having varying definitions within different academic circles, the term was originally applied to the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire, but has since been gradually replaced by the term Middle East. The region is sometimes called the Levant.

At 1.4 million years, Ubeidiya in the northern Jordan River Valley is the earliest Homo erectus site in the Levant.[30]

Near East Bronze Age timeline
New Kingdom of EgyptMiddle Kingdom of EgyptOld Kingdom of EgyptEarly Dynastic Period of EgyptNaqada IIIAncient EgyptKassitesAssyriaBabyloniaThird Dynasty of UrAkkadian EmpireCities of the ancient Near EastAncient Near East
Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

South Asia

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Dolmen from Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Woodcut from the article "Indiska fornsaker" by Hans Hildebrand.

South Asia is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities, also includes the adjoining countries to the west and the east. Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as the India south of the Himalayas and the Paropamisadae. South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land (clockwise, from west) by West Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia.

The Riwat site in Pakistan contains a few artifacts – a core and two flakes – that might date human activity there to 1.9 million years ago, but these dates are still controversial.[31]

The South Asian prehistory is explored in the articles about Prehistoric Sri Lanka, India and Tamil Nadu

Bronze Age India timeline
Cemetery H cultureMature HarappanIndus Valley Civilization
Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details
See also: South Asian Stone Age

Southeast Asia

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Modern humans interbred with an archaic human species called Denisovans on the islands of Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia.[32] The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic and volcanic activity. Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions: (1) Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as Indochina, comprising Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, and Vietnam; and (2) Maritime Southeast Asia, comprising Brunei, Malaysia, East Timor, Indonesia, Philippines, and Singapore.[33]

The rich Sangiran Formation in Central Java (Indonesia) has yielded the earliest evidence of hominin presence in Southeast Asia. These Homo erectus fossils date to more than 1.6 Ma.[34] Remains found in Mojokerto have been dated to 1.49 Ma.[35]

Its history is told by region, including the Early history of Burma and Cambodia, as well as the articles about Prehistoric Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia.

Skeleton remains were found of a hominid that was only 3 feet (0.91 m) tall as an adult in Indonesia on the island of Flores. It had a small brain and, nicknamed "the Hobbit" for its diminutive structure, was classified distinctly as Homo floresiensis. Evidence of H. floresiensis has been dated to be from 50,000 to 190,000 years ago,[36] after early publications suggested the small hominid persisted until as recently as 12,000 years ago.[37] Ancestral East Asians are suggested to have originated in Mainland Southeast Asia, before expanding northwards.[38]

The Negritos form the indigenous population of Southeast Asia, but were largely absorbed by Austroasiatic- and Austronesian-speaking groups that migrated from southern East Asia into Mainland and Insular Southeast Asia with the Neolithic expansion. The remainders form minority groups in geographically isolated regions.[39]

Written language

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Date Writing system Attestation Location Region
c. 2600–2500 BC Sumerian Cuneiform texts from Shuruppak and Abu Salabikh (Fara period)[40] Mesopotamia Near East
c. 2400 BC Akkadian A few dozen pre-Sargonic texts from Mari and other sites in northern Babylonia[41] Syria Near East
c. 2400 BC Eblaite Ebla tablets Syria Near East
c. 2300 BC[42] Elamite Awan dynasty peace treaty with Naram-Sin Iran / Iraq Near East
 21st century BC Hurrian Temple inscription of Tish-atal in Urkesh[43] Mesopotamia Near East
c. 1650 BC Hittite Various cuneiform texts and Palace Chronicles written during the reign of Hattusili I, from the archives at Hattusa Turkey Near East
c. 1300 BC Ugaritic Tablets from Ugarit[44] Syria Near East
c. 1200 BC Old Chinese Oracle bone and bronze inscriptions from the reign of Wu Ding[45] China East Asia
c. 1000 BC Phoenician Ahiram epitaph Canaan Near East
 10th century BC Aramaic Near East
 10th century BC Hebrew Gezer calendar Canaan Near East
c. 850 BC Ammonite Amman Citadel Inscription[46] Jordan Near East
c. 840 BC Moabite Mesha Stele Jordan Near East
c. 800 BC Phrygian Asia Minor Near East
c. 800 BC Old North Arabian Northern Arabian Peninsula Near East
c. 800 BC Old South Arabian Southern Arabian Peninsula Near East
c. 600 BC Lydian [47] Anatolia Near East
c. 600 BC Carian [47] Anatolia Near East
c. 500 BC Old Persian Behistun inscription Iran Near East
c. 500-300 BC Tamil Brahmi cave inscriptions and potsherds in Tamil Nadu[48] Sri Lanka / India South Asia
c. 260 BC Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrit) Edicts of Ashoka[49][50] (Pottery inscriptions from Anuradhapura have been dated c. 400 BC.[51][52]) India South Asia
c. 170–130 BC Pahlavi Iran Near East

See also

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Notes

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References

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Works cited

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  • Dennell, Robin (2007), "'Resource-rich, stone-poor': Early hominin land use in large river systems of Northern India and Pakistan", in Michael D. Petraglia; Bridget Allchin (eds.), The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics, Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series, Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 41–68, ISBN 978-1-4020-5561-4.
  • Dennell, Robin (2010), "'Out of Africa I': Current Problems and Future Prospects", in John G. Fleagle; et al. (eds.), Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia, Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series, Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 247–74, ISBN 978-90-481-9036-2.
  • Morwood, M. J.; O'Sullivan, P.; Susanto, E. E.; Aziz, F. (2003), "Revised age for Mojokerto 1, an early Homo erectus cranium from East Java, Indonesia", Australian Archaeology, 57: 1–4, doi:10.1080/03122417.2003.11681757, S2CID 55510294, archived from the original on 2014-03-10.
  • Rightmire, G. Philip; Lordkipanidze, David (2010), "Fossil Skulls from Dmanisi: A Paleodeme Representing Early Homo in Asia", in John G. Fleagle; et al. (eds.), Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia, Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series, Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 225–44, ISBN 978-90-481-9036-2.
  • Swisher, C. C.; Curtis, G. H.; Jacob, T.; Getty, A. G.; Suprijo, A.; Widiasmoro (1994), "Age of the earliest known hominin in Java, Indonesia", Science, 263 (5150): 1118–21, Bibcode:1994Sci...263.1118S, doi:10.1126/science.8108729, PMID 8108729.
  • Tchernov, E. (1987), "The age of the 'Ubeidiya Formation, and Early Pleistocene hominid site in the Jordan River Valley, Israel", Israel J. Earth Sci., 36: 3–30.


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Prehistoric Asia

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Prehistoric Asia refers to the span of activity on the Asian prior to the development of writing systems, extending from the earliest hominin migrations approximately 1.8 million years ago to roughly 3000 BCE in regions like and the Indus Valley, with later transitions in East and . Recent studies (as of 2025) highlight multiple migration waves and genetic admixtures shaping Asia's prehistoric diversity. This era encompasses diverse environmental adaptations across vast landscapes, from the arid steppes of to the tropical rainforests of , and includes the (Old Stone Age), (Middle Stone Age), and (New Stone Age) periods, during which early hominins and modern humans transitioned from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled agricultural communities. Archaeological evidence reveals Asia as a critical crossroads for , with multiple waves of migration shaping genetic, technological, and . The period in began with the dispersal of from , reaching sites in () by around 1.8 million years ago, as evidenced by fossils from and Trinil. These early hominins utilized simple stone tools, such as choppers and hand axes, and adapted to varied ecosystems, including the Nihewan Basin in northern , where stone artifacts date to over 1 million years ago. By the (approximately 300,000–50,000 years ago), Neanderthals occupied western , while Denisovans are known from Siberian caves like Denisova, indicating interbreeding with incoming modern humans. Anatomically modern Homo sapiens arrived in and Southeast around 70,000–50,000 years ago, following coastal routes from , as supported by genetic and archaeological data from sites like Niah Cave in and Madjedbebe in (linked via ancient land bridges). innovations included advanced blade tools, bone implements, and symbolic art, such as rock engravings in Central 's arid zones, reflecting complex social behaviors amid fluctuating climates during the . The transition to the , often termed the , occurred independently in several Asian hearths starting around 12,000–10,000 years ago, driven by post-glacial warming that favored plant . In Southwest Asia's , early farming communities at sites like (circa 9600–7000 BCE) constructed monumental stone structures, predating widespread agriculture but signaling organized labor and ritual practices. of , , sheep, and goats here laid the groundwork for surplus economies and . In , along the and Rivers, rice and millet cultivation emerged by 8000 BCE, as seen in the site with early and musical instruments, marking the Peiligang and Yangshao cultures. South Asia's site (circa 7000 BCE) evidences farming and mud-brick villages, precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization. In , Neolithic societies emerged around 4000 BCE through admixture of hunter-gatherers with migrants from southern introducing rice and root crop cultivation, associated with the spread of . These developments fostered , weaving, and village life, setting the stage for complexities. Central and , meanwhile, hosted mobile pastoralist groups during the and , with sites in the Central Asian steppes, such as Botai, revealing domestication around 3500 BCE, with early emerging in the region by the late 4th millennium BCE. Overall, prehistoric Asia's legacy lies in its role as a mosaic of evolutionary and cultural innovations, influencing global human dispersal and societal foundations.

Human Evolution and Migrations

Early Hominins in Asia

The earliest evidence of hominins in Asia dates to approximately 1.8 million years ago, with fossils from the site in Georgia representing some of the oldest known occurrences outside . These remains, attributed to early members of the genus resembling , include multiple skulls, jaws, and postcranial bones found in association with stone tools and faunal remains, indicating a small population adapted to a diverse woodland-steppe environment. Similarly, the Longgupo Cave in has yielded teeth and a fragment dated between 1.4 and 1.8 million years ago, initially interpreted as early hominin but later debated as possibly belonging to an archaic ape or primitive ; regardless, the site's artifacts suggest hominin presence in subtropical during the . Hominin dispersal into likely occurred via migration routes out of through the around 2 million years ago, with evidence of tool use appearing soon after in . At in , Acheulean-like stone tools dated to 1.5 million years ago demonstrate early hominin occupation, including handaxes and cleavers indicative of advanced transported or developed en route from African origins. These findings support a model of initial dispersals by small groups of early species crossing the and during periods of favorable climate, reaching western and southern by the . Early hominins in exhibited adaptations to varied biomes, from tropical forests in the south to open steppes in the north and west, reflecting behavioral flexibility beyond African savannas. Fossil and paleoenvironmental data indicate that these populations exploited woodland mosaics at , with dietary evidence from cut-marked bones showing scavenging and in cooler, more seasonal settings, while southern sites suggest in forested habitats with access to diverse and . Such versatility likely facilitated survival in 's heterogeneous landscapes, including arid steppes and humid , through tool use and opportunistic resource exploitation. Recent fossil and genetic analyses from 2020 to 2025 have reinforced the occurrence of multiple early dispersal waves into , with evidence pointing to at least two or three pulses of Homo erectus-like populations between 2 and 1 million years ago. Studies of East and Southeast Asian sites, including new dating of tools and remains, confirm repeated migrations across the and southern routes, contributing to regional diversification before the emergence of more archaic species. These findings, integrating stratigraphic, isotopic, and genomic data, underscore 's role as a key theater for early hominin evolution and adaptation.

Archaic Human Species

Archaic human species in Asia, spanning from approximately 1.8 million to 300,000 years ago, were primarily represented by Homo erectus, which dominated the continent's landscapes and demonstrated advanced adaptations for survival. Fossils of H. erectus in Java, Indonesia, date back to around 1.8 million years ago, marking one of the earliest confirmed presences of this species outside Africa and indicating rapid dispersal across Southeast Asia. In China, the Zhoukoudian site near Beijing has yielded extensive remains of H. erectus (often termed Peking Man), with burial dating methods establishing an age of approximately 770,000 years for the lower layers containing hominin fossils. These individuals show evidence of controlled fire use, as indicated by concentrations of burned bones, ash, and heated sediments, suggesting habitual maintenance of hearths for cooking and warmth. Additionally, cut marks and fracturing patterns on the Zhoukoudian bones provide evidence consistent with cannibalistic practices, possibly for nutritional or ritual purposes, though interpretations remain debated due to potential scavenging influences. Tool technologies associated with H. erectus in highlight regional adaptations of the tradition, which originated in around 1.76 million years ago and spread eastward. In , handaxes and cleavers, characterized by symmetrical bifacial shaping, appear at sites like in , dated to 1.2–1.8 million years ago, demonstrating continuity with African forms but with local raw material variations such as . This tradition extended into , though sparser, with handaxe-like tools in linked to H. erectus occupations, contrasting the more developed assemblages in by showing simpler, less standardized forms adapted to island environments. Beyond H. erectus, other archaic occupied specific Asian niches during this period. Denisovans, a sister group to Neanderthals, are known primarily from in southern , where fossils and genetic material date to between 200,000 and 50,000 years ago, revealing their adaptation to cold, high-altitude settings. Genetic studies from the 2020s, including analyses of , confirm multiple interbreeding events between Denisovans and early modern humans, contributing adaptive alleles like those for high-altitude hypoxia tolerance in present-day Asian populations. On Flores Island in , Homo floresiensis, a diminutive nicknamed the "hobbit," persisted from about 100,000 to 50,000 years ago, exhibiting unique small-bodied adaptations such as reduced stature (around 1 meter tall) and brain size, likely resulting from island dwarfism in isolation. Regional variations in tool use among archaic humans included precursors to the in , where prepared-core methods emerged by the Middle Pleistocene. Sites like Tolbor-16 in yield lithic assemblages with proto-Levallois flaking patterns, dated to around 40,000–50,000 years ago but rooted in earlier archaic traditions, facilitating efficient blank production for points and scrapers in environments. These innovations reflect diverse behavioral flexibility across Asia's vast ecological zones, from tropical islands to continental interiors.

Modern Human Dispersal

The dispersal of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) into represents a pivotal phase in human , occurring primarily around 60,000 years ago as part of the broader migration. This expansion involved multiple routes, with early populations navigating diverse environments from coastal lowlands to inland steppes, leading to the establishment of sapiens across the continent. Genetic and archaeological evidence indicates that these migrants carried , including advanced tool technologies and symbolic practices, which distinguished them from earlier hominin groups. The southern dispersal route, hugging the coastlines from the through Arabia and into , is evidenced by stone tools and genetic markers dating to approximately 74,000–60,000 BCE. At Jwalapuram in southern , lithic artifacts indistinguishable from African tools were found both below and above the ash layer from the Toba supereruption of 74,000 BCE, suggesting Homo sapiens presence in the region prior to this event and continuity through environmental stressors. These findings support a rapid coastal migration along the , with genetic studies confirming shared ancestry between early South Asian populations and African lineages around 60,000 BCE. A northern route through emerged later, after 45,000 BCE, facilitating entry into . The Tianyuan Cave skeleton from northern , dated to around 40,000 BCE, represents one of the earliest Homo sapiens remains in the region and exhibits genetic affinities with modern East Asian populations, indicating divergence from West Eurasian lineages by this time. This individual carried approximately 4–5% Neanderthal ancestry, consistent with admixture events shortly after leaving . Interbreeding with archaic populations, such as Denisovans, occurred during these dispersals, as revealed by ancient DNA from Yunnan Province in southwest China. Genomes from individuals dated between 40,000 and 7,000 BCE show Denisovan admixture in East Asian sapiens lineages, contributing up to 0.1–0.5% of modern Southeast Asian genetic variation and adaptations like high-altitude tolerance. Initial coastal adaptations in Southeast Asia enabled further expansion, with seafaring populations reaching Australia by approximately 65,000 BCE, as evidenced by occupation at Madjedbebe rock shelter. These migrations involved severe population bottlenecks, particularly in Siberian source populations for later Asian-to-America movements, resulting in significant loss of genetic diversity, including immune-related variants, as documented in comprehensive 2025 genomic analyses of over 1,500 individuals from northern Eurasia and the Americas.

Prehistory of Western Asia

Paleolithic Developments

The Lower Paleolithic in Western Asia is exemplified by the site of 'Ubeidiya in the Jordan Valley, Israel, dated to approximately 1.4 million years ago, which preserves the earliest evidence of Acheulean tool technology outside Africa. These bifacial handaxes and cleavers, crafted from local flint and basalt, reflect advanced knapping techniques associated with early hominins like Homo erectus, who likely used them for butchering and woodworking in a diverse landscape of lakeshores and savannas. The site's faunal remains, including hippopotamus and elephant bones, underscore a scavenging and hunting economy adapted to Pleistocene environments. During the , spanning roughly 250,000 to 50,000 years ago, occupied key sites in the , such as on , , where layers dated between 120,000 and 50,000 BCE contain tool assemblages. These Levallois-prepared flakes and points, often retouched into scrapers and denticulates, indicate specialized hunting strategies targeting gazelle and deer in forested and open terrains. Notably, yielded skeletal remains of a female (Tabun C1), intentionally buried in a shallow pit within a layer, providing early evidence of ritualistic behavior among these hominins around 100,000–70,000 years ago. The , from about 50,000 to 10,000 BCE, saw the arrival and dominance of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens), who introduced refined lithic technologies and precursors to in the region. The , flourishing between 15,000 and 11,500 BCE across the , is distinguished by its microlithic tools—small, geometrically shaped blades hafted onto spears and sickles for intensive wild cereal harvesting and . Sites like Ein Mallaha and Hayonim Cave reveal semi-permanent settlements with stone-lined hearths and storage pits, signaling a shift toward resource-rich locales that foreshadowed later agricultural communities, supported by a diet heavy in , fish, and gathered plants. Recent excavations in the 2020s, such as those at Tinshemet Cave in central , have uncovered toolkits blending elements with early Homo sapiens innovations, like refined Levallois points dated to circa 130,000–100,000 years ago, suggesting cultural interactions or coexistence in broader Western Asian contexts including adjacent . These findings highlight adaptive flexibility across Homo groups in the Levantine mid-Middle Palaeolithic.

Neolithic Transition

The Neolithic Transition in Western Asia marked a profound shift from lifestyles to and , beginning around 10,000 BCE in the , a region encompassing the , southern , and northern . This period, often termed the , involved the gradual domestication of plants and animals, leading to the establishment of permanent villages and the foundations of complex societies. Environmental changes at the end of the Pleistocene, including increased rainfall and warmer temperatures, facilitated the exploitation of wild cereals and herd management, setting the stage for intentional cultivation and herding. Domestication of key crops and livestock occurred primarily in the Fertile Crescent by approximately 9,500 BCE. Wheat (Triticum dicoccum and T. monococcum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) were among the first plants domesticated in the Levant, with evidence from sites like Jericho showing managed fields and storage facilities for these grains during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) phase (ca. 10,500–9,500 BCE). Similarly, sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus) were domesticated in the same region, transitioning from hunted wild populations to herded animals, as indicated by morphological changes in bone remains at Jericho and nearby PPNA settlements. At Çatalhöyük in central Anatolia, a later Neolithic site (ca. 7,400–6,000 BCE), these domesticates were integral to the economy, with archaeological layers revealing processed wheat, barley, and herds of sheep and goats that supported a dense population of up to 8,000 inhabitants. The PPNA and subsequent Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) phases (ca. 9,500–7,000 BCE) witnessed the emergence of sophisticated architecture and communal structures across Western Asia. In the Levant, PPNA sites like Jericho featured circular mudbrick houses clustered without streets, evolving into rectangular, multi-roomed buildings in the PPNB, often plastered and adorned with lime. These innovations supported year-round habitation and food storage, enabling population growth. Ritual complexes also proliferated, exemplified by Göbekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey, a PPNA site with massive T-shaped pillars arranged in enclosures, interpreted as ceremonial spaces that may have drawn communities for feasting and symbolic activities before full sedentism. Çatalhöyük's PPNB levels further illustrate this, with densely packed mudbrick homes incorporating shrines containing bull horns and wall paintings, suggesting integrated domestic and ritual life. Farming practices spread rapidly from the to and the broader during the PPNB, driven by both and population movements. analyses from the 2020s reveal a significant influx of farmers from the in western into these regions around 8,500 BCE, contributing to genetic admixture with local groups and the dissemination of domesticates like and . For instance, genomic data from PPNB sites in southeastern show continuity with Zagros-derived ancestry, indicating migratory herders who introduced pastoral elements to Levantine villages. This expansion facilitated the establishment of proto-urban settlements, with sites like exemplifying how incoming agricultural knowledge integrated with indigenous practices. By the period (ca. 5,500–3,500 BCE), which followed the Pottery Neolithic, technological advancements included the initial use of in Western Asia. At sites like Teleilat Ghassul in the , dated to around 5,000 BCE, artifacts such as copper awls and beads demonstrate early , likely involving cold-hammering and annealing of sourced from local deposits. This innovation, part of the Ghassulian culture, coincided with expanded trade networks and specialized craft production, bridging farming communities with emerging societies. Social organization during the Neolithic Transition showed signs of emerging complexity, though largely egalitarian compared to later periods. At , burial practices within house floors reveal subtle inequalities, with some individuals interred with more elaborate like tools, beads, and exotic shells, suggesting status differentiation based on or economic roles. Ground stone artifacts, used in , also indicate household-level specialization that may have fostered corporate groups rather than rigid hierarchies. Paleogenomic studies confirm matrilineal descent patterns, with preferential treatment in burials—such as more for female infants—highlighting gendered social structures amid overall communal resource sharing. These indicators point to a transition toward inequality driven by agricultural surpluses, though without evidence of elite domination.

Prehistory of South Asia

Early Tool Cultures

The Early Tool Cultures of represent a diverse array of and traditions spanning approximately 500,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE, characterized by regionally distinct lithic industries adapted to the subcontinent's varied landscapes, from the northern Siwalik foothills to the southern peninsulas. These cultures emphasize chopper and flake technologies, microliths, and early artistic expressions, reflecting lifeways influenced by tropical and monsoon environments. Unlike the handaxe-dominated traditions prevalent in and parts of , South Asian assemblages often prioritize crude, locally sourced pebble tools, highlighting unique technological trajectories possibly linked to early hominin migrations into the region. The Soanian industry, prominent in northern India's Siwalik Hills from around 500,000 to 100,000 BCE, exemplifies this divergence with its focus on quartzite pebble and cobble tools, including choppers, chopping tools, and simple flakes produced through basic reduction techniques. These artifacts, found in high concentrations at sites like Toka, demonstrate a Mode 1 and Mode 3 technological mix without the refined bifacial handaxes typical of the Acheulean, suggesting localized adaptations to riverine and foothill environments with limited raw material transport (typically under 3 km). Similarly, the Madrasian industry in southern India, contemporaneous from 500,000 to 100,000 BCE, features handaxes, cleavers, and chopping tools made from quartzite and other local stones, but with a more primitive, minimally finished typology compared to classic Acheulean forms, as observed in sites near Chennai (formerly Madras). This regional variant underscores South Asia's ecological isolation, where tools were tailored for processing fauna and flora in forested and coastal settings. In , the provide key evidence of tool evolution and symbolic behavior from 100,000 to 30,000 BCE, with layers yielding handaxes, cleavers, and pebble tools; scrapers; and blades, borers, and early microliths. These shelters also host the earliest known South Asian , including cupule engravings dated by some researchers to around 100,000 BCE but generally accepted as (c. 40,000–10,000 BCE) and paintings of hunters, animals (such as deer and tigers), and stylized figures predating 30,000 BCE, executed in red ochre and other natural pigments. Archaeological continuity at sites like in the Son Valley demonstrates human occupation spanning the Toba supereruption around 74,000 BCE, with Levallois flake tools persisting before and after the event, supported by 2020 stratigraphic and genetic analyses indicating no major for Homo sapiens in the region. During the period (circa 12,000 to 6,000 BCE), microlithic tools—small, geometric blades and points often hafted into composite implements—became widespread on the , enabling precise hunting and plant processing amid fluctuating regimes that promoted expansion and resource shifts. These crypto-crystalline silica tools, found in open-air and contexts, reflect adaptations to post-glacial environments, including intensified use of fire for landscape management. groups further diversified their toolkit for coastal exploitation, incorporating microlith-tipped harpoons, net sinkers, and bone points for along the margins, as evidenced by faunal remains and tool assemblages at sites in and Pakistan's region from the late Mesolithic onward. This coastal orientation complemented inland , underscoring the flexibility of South Asian populations in monsoon-driven ecosystems.

Pre-Harappan Settlements

Pre-Harappan settlements in represent a critical phase of and development, spanning from approximately 7000 BCE to 2600 BCE, characterized by the transition to sedentary farming communities, animal , and emerging in regions like the Indus periphery and the Indian interior. These sites demonstrate independent trajectories of agricultural innovation, including the cultivation of local staples such as , , and later , alongside pastoral economies that supported proto-urban growth without direct ties to the later Indus Valley Civilization. Evidence from key locations highlights mud-brick architecture, specialized crafts, and inter-regional exchanges that laid the groundwork for more integrated societies. Mehrgarh in Balochistan, Pakistan, stands as one of the earliest and most extensively studied villages, occupied from circa 5200 BCE to 2600 BCE (recent 2025 revises the traditional start from 7000 BCE). Excavations reveal early farming practices centered on domesticated and , introduced likely through interactions with western regions, supplemented by local wild species and date palms. Residents constructed multi-roomed mud-brick houses arranged in clustered settlements, indicating planned habitation and storage facilities for surplus crops. Notably, mineralized fibers adhering to a bead from a 6th-millennium BCE burial provide the oldest evidence of use in the , suggesting exploitation of the wild for textiles as early as 5000 BCE. at Mehrgarh included zebu cattle, sheep, and , reflecting a mixed agro-pastoral economy adapted to the arid Kacchi Plain. In the Rajasthan region of , sites like and Bagor illustrate contemporaneous developments in and ceramic traditions around 5000–3000 BCE. , dated to the 4th millennium BCE, features fortified enclosures with defensive walls, pointing to emerging social hierarchies and conflict resolution in agrarian communities reliant on herding sheep, goats, and cattle alongside limited millet cultivation. The site yields black-and-red ware , a distinctive style with burnished black interiors and red exteriors, used for storage and cooking, often decorated with simple linear motifs. Bagor, a multi-phase settlement near the Kothari River, transitions from hunter-gatherer occupations around 5000 BCE to pastoral phases by 4000 BCE, with evidence of domesticated sheep and goats integrated into a mobile strategy. This site's horizontal excavations uncover microlithic tools persisting alongside early , underscoring gradual in semi-arid environments. Recent archaeological insights into the Ganges Valley highlight early management of , with and macro-botanical remains from sites like indicating proto-cultivation around 7000–6000 BCE, predating widespread wet-rice farming and contributing to regional trajectories toward . These findings, derived from stratified deposits, show initial management of wild rice gathering evolving into selective harvesting, supported by monsoon-dependent dry cropping in floodplains. By the mid-5th millennium BCE, rice complemented and lentils in systems, fostering in . Trade networks during this era connected these settlements, facilitating the exchange of prestige goods like from and marine shells from the , evident in bead workshops at . Lapis beads and shell bangles, often etched or drilled, circulated over 500–1000 km, signaling elite access to distant resources and cultural interactions across the and Gujarat coast. Such exchanges, documented through raw material sourcing, underscore economic interdependence without centralized control. Social structures in Pre-Harappan communities are inferred from burial practices and settlement layouts, revealing ritual complexity and inequality. At , over 300 tombs from the periods contain flexed inhumations in mud-brick-lined pits, accompanied by like shell beads, turquoise pendants, and pottery vessels, suggesting beliefs in provisioning. Balathal's fortified villages and isolated burials, including a rare case of an adult male interred with ritual offerings around 2500 BCE, indicate community defenses and possible shamanistic rites tied to pastoral cycles. These elements collectively point to kin-based groups with emerging leaders, where ritual burials reinforced social bonds in increasingly hierarchical societies.

Prehistory of Central Asia

Steppe Hunter-Gatherers

Steppe hunter-gatherers in inhabited the vast Eurasian steppes during the and periods, from approximately 50,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE, adapting to the expansive ecosystem characterized by cold, dry grasslands that supported such as mammoths, horses, and . These mobile groups relied on seasonal migrations across open landscapes, tracking herds and exploiting diverse resources including large , and plant foods, with evidence of high mobility indicated by lightweight tool kits and temporary campsites scattered along river valleys and lake shores. Their subsistence strategies emphasized communal of , facilitated by specialized technologies that enhanced projectile efficiency in open terrain. A key site illustrating the transitional Middle to in the region is Obi-Rakhmat Grotto in northeastern , dated to around 50,000–40,000 BCE, where excavations have uncovered over 60,000 artifacts including stone tools showing Levallois techniques evolving into blade-based industries, alongside faunal remains dominated by mountain goats and other ungulates indicative of intensive local hunting. Hunter-gatherers at such sites employed atlatls (spear-throwers) and bone tools, including points and harpoons, for pursuing large game like mammoths on the ; for instance, artifacts from Kokorevo I in southern (circa 16,000–13,000 BCE) demonstrate these implements' use against and hares, with analogous technologies extending into Central Asian contexts during the . For example, Early individuals from Koken in eastern (circa 5,500–5,200 BCE), representing late continuity, show affinities to Ancient North Eurasians and Paleo-Siberians, underscoring a dynamic genetic legacy from earlier steppe foragers amid ongoing migrations, with genome-wide data revealing mixtures of local ancestries such as Ancient Paleo-Siberians and Eastern European hunter-gatherers. in the mountains provides visual evidence of these s' interactions with the environment, featuring petroglyphs depicting animals such as ibex, deer, wolves, and in stylized forms that likely served or narrative purposes related to hunting success. Sites like Saimaluu-Tash in , located at high altitudes in the eastern Fergana Range, contain thousands of such engravings, reflecting the cultural significance of faunal resources in a where human presence was tied to seasonal mobility. Environmental responses to Ice Age fluctuations were central to steppe adaptations, as glacial-interglacial cycles from 50,000 to 8,000 BCE altered vegetation from productive grasslands to sparser during colder phases like the , prompting shifts in prey availability and patterns toward refugia near rivers and mountains. These changes, driven by orbital variations and millennial-scale cooling events, influenced strategies, with hunter-gatherers intensifying exploitation of resilient species like and adjusting mobility to track shifting herd migrations across the fluctuating .

Early Pastoralism

Early pastoralism in developed during the period, beginning around 7000 BCE, as steppe groups incorporated animal into their economies, enabling seasonal mobility across arid and mountainous landscapes. This transition supported the exploitation of diverse environments, from the Kopet Dag to the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor, where supplemented foraging and early cultivation of grains like and . A key early center of sheep and domestication was the Jeitun site in southern , part of the Jeitun Culture, where these animals formed the primary by 6000 cal. BCE, integrated into an agropastoral system that included einkorn wheat and cultivation. Evidence from paleogenomic and archaeozoological analyses confirms the presence of domesticated sheep in as early as 6000 BCE, with sites like Obishir V in pushing back the dispersal of these animals by compared to prior estimates. These herding practices spread eastward via the Bactria-Margiana region by the late fourth BCE, where mobile dominated economies in the eastern steppes, fostering networks between herders and farmers. The in northern represents a pivotal advancement in , with horse domestication evidenced around 3700 BCE through lipid residue analysis of , revealing mare's milk processing in vessels dated to 3600–3100 BCE. This exploitation of horses for milk and potentially traction enhanced mobility for herders, distinguishing Central Asian from more sedentary farming in adjacent regions. Complementing these developments, early emerged on the at Tal-i-Iblis, where crucible smelting of copper ores occurred from the mid-sixth millennium BCE (ca. 5500–5000 BCE), producing high-purity artifacts that linked southeastern Iranian technologies to broader Central Asian exchanges. Social stratification within pastoral societies is indicated by kurgan burial mounds from the Bronze Age onward, such as those at Qieh-Boynou and in northwestern bordering , where larger mounds with megalithic tombs, rich , and evidence of human or horse sacrifices denoted status, contrasting with simpler pit burials for lower ranks. These monuments reflect emerging hierarchies tied to control over herds and resources. Interactions with South Asian farmers occurred via trade routes, as demonstrated by the presence of Indus Valley-style ivory artifacts, ceramics like dish-on-stand vessels, and seals at Bactria-Margiana sites such as and Altyn Depe around 2300–1800 BCE, suggesting exchanges of goods that may have included pastoral products alongside crops.

Prehistory of North Asia

Siberian Paleolithic Sites

The Paleolithic occupation of , spanning from approximately 45,000 BCE, represents one of the earliest human adaptations to extreme northern environments, characterized by cold-adapted technologies such as tools for and processing in subarctic conditions. Archaeological evidence from key sites illustrates the presence of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) pushing into high-latitude territories well before the , relying on megafauna like mammoths and for subsistence. These occupations highlight technological innovations, including worked implements that facilitated survival in permafrost-dominated landscapes. The Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site (Yana RHS), located near the lower Yana River in northeastern Siberia at 71°N, provides the northernmost evidence of early Homo sapiens presence, dated to around 32,000 cal BP based on radiocarbon analysis. Excavations uncovered an assemblage of over 100 stone tools, ivory artifacts, and faunal remains indicating mammoth hunting and processing, with mammoth ivory tools such as points and adzes demonstrating advanced working techniques adapted to Arctic conditions. This site, situated above the Arctic Circle, underscores early human dispersal into periglacial environments, with no prior evidence of hominin occupation at such latitudes. Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of southern yields stratified deposits spanning 200,000 to 50,000 BCE, encompassing Middle and layers occupied by multiple hominin groups, including s, Neanderthals, and early modern humans. Genomic analyses from these layers reveal archaic-modern human overlaps, with interbreeding events that contributed Denisovan DNA to modern Eurasian populations; a 2025 high-coverage genome study from confirms these genetic interactions spanning hundreds of thousands of years. Bone tools and ornaments from the strata further indicate cultural continuity amid these genetic interactions. The Mal'ta-Buret' culture, centered near and dated to approximately 24,000 BCE, is renowned for its artistic output, including Venus figurines carved from mammoth ivory that exhibit stylistic parallels to European portable art, such as exaggerated female forms symbolizing fertility. These artifacts, alongside dwellings constructed from mammoth bones, reflect a mobile lifestyle adapted to steppe-tundra ecosystems. Recent 2025 genomic studies of ancient Siberian individuals from related populations confirm genetic continuity with Native American ancestors, showing shared ancestry components in Y-chromosome haplogroups and autosomal DNA that trace migrations across . Throughout these sites, cold-adapted technologies like bone harpoons and eyed sewing needles were pivotal for Arctic survival, with barbed bone harpoons from Baikal-region assemblages used for thrusting spears in megafauna hunting around 20,000 BCE. Eyed needles, emerging in Siberia by 45,000–40,000 BCE, enabled the production of tailored clothing from hides, essential for thermal insulation in subzero climates, as inferred from wear patterns and experimental replications. These innovations, found across Yana, Denisova, and Mal'ta-Buret' contexts, facilitated human persistence in Siberia's harsh Paleolithic environments.

Arctic Adaptations

In the Arctic regions of , human populations during the Mesolithic to Neolithic periods (circa 12,000–3,000 BCE) developed specialized strategies for surviving extreme cold, conditions, and seasonal resource scarcity, relying on advanced lithic technologies, faunal exploitation, and early animal partnerships. These adaptations are evidenced at key sites in Yakutia and Chukotka, where communities transitioned from mobile lifestyles to more stable seasonal occupations, emphasizing marine and terrestrial resources in a landscape dominated by and ice. The Bel'kachi site in Yakutia, dating to approximately 9,000 BCE in its early layers, exemplifies early microblade technology tailored for hunting. Inhabitants produced wedge-shaped cores and microblades, which were hafted into composite tools for processing hides and harpooning seals, adapting to the region's populations amid post-glacial warming. These microlithic implements, characteristic of the Diuktai and early Sumnagin cultural phases, facilitated efficient butchery and tool maintenance in harsh, low-resource environments. Evidence of domestication emerges from in the East Siberian , where remains dated to around 8,000 BCE indicate for sled-pulling and hunting assistance. Archaeological findings include dog bones alongside wooden fragments and gear, suggesting these animals enhanced mobility across and supported seal and hunts, marking one of the earliest instances of human-canine in high-latitude environments. Genetic analysis of these remains confirms morphological distinctions from wild canids, supporting by local groups. Ancient DNA studies from 2021, analyzing permafrost-preserved samples across , reveal genetic isolation of prehistoric human and faunal populations, with adaptations such as enhanced fat metabolism and cold tolerance linked to prolonged residence in permafrost zones. Metagenomic data from over 500 sediment cores highlight low with southern groups, underscoring how these isolated communities evolved physiological traits for surviving nutrient-poor, frozen terrains from the onward. Rock engravings in Chukotka, particularly at the Pegtymel River site, depict marine mammals like whales and seals, illustrating hunting techniques from the to early (circa 3,000–1,000 BCE). These petroglyphs, pecked into boulders, show hunters with bows, spears, and boats pursuing sea mammals, reflecting cultural emphasis on coastal resources and ritual knowledge of animal behaviors in waters. By the mid-Neolithic (circa 7,000–3,000 BCE), Arctic groups in Yakutia and Chukotka shifted toward semi-sedentary camps, incorporating early pottery for cooking and storage to exploit seasonal abundances of fish and mammals. Sites associated with the Syalakh and Belkachi cultures feature pit houses and ceramic vessels with cord-impressed designs, enabling prolonged stays at resource-rich locations like river mouths and coastal lagoons, while maintaining mobility for hunting. This transition supported population stability without full sedentism, blending foraging with technological innovations suited to permafrost challenges.

Prehistory of East Asia

Chinese River Valley Cultures

The prehistoric sequences in the Chinese river valleys, encompassing the (Huang He) and Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) basins, represent a continuum from Late Paleolithic adaptations to Neolithic agricultural societies that laid foundational elements for later Chinese civilizations. These regions witnessed the arrival and establishment of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) by around 40,000 years ago, with evidence of symbolic behaviors emerging in the terminal Pleistocene. Key sites along these rivers illustrate transitions in subsistence, technology, and social organization, driven by environmental changes and human innovation. A prominent Late Paleolithic site is the Upper Cave at , near along the upper basin, dated to approximately 18,000 BCE. This rockshelter yielded remains of at least three Homo sapiens individuals, alongside artifacts indicating ritual and decorative practices, including perforated animal teeth, shell beads, and use for body adornment. These personal ornaments, reassessed in recent analyses, suggest early symbolic expression among northern Chinese populations, comparable to contemporaneous Eurasian sites. Although early sherds appear in broader northern Chinese contexts around this period, the Upper Cave assemblage primarily features bone tools and lithics, reflecting a mobile lifestyle supplemented by wild plant gathering. The onset of the Neolithic in the middle Yellow River valley is exemplified by the Peiligang culture, flourishing from 7000 to 5000 BCE. Centered in sites like the type locality at Peiligang village in Henan Province, this culture marks the region's earliest sedentary communities with mixed farming economies. Archaeological evidence reveals systematic cultivation of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) as the staple crop, alongside limited rice (Oryza sativa) from nearby wetlands, supported by phytolith and macrofossil analyses from storage pits and hearths. Villages consisted of semi-subterranean pit-houses clustered around communal spaces, with ground stone tools for processing grains and evidence of early animal domestication, including pigs and dogs. This agricultural intensification, radiocarbon-dated to as early as 7800 years ago in some middens, facilitated population growth and cultural continuity into subsequent phases. Further developments in the Neolithic are seen in the (5000–3000 BCE), which expanded millet-based farming across the central plains. Distinguished by its painted pottery tradition, Yangshao vessels—often tripod cauldrons (ding) and bowls decorated with black or red geometric motifs—reflect phased stylistic evolution from the Early to Late periods, as documented in typological studies from sites like . These ceramics, produced via and slow-wheel techniques, served both utilitarian and functions, with residue analyses indicating use for cooking millet porridges and fermented beverages. emphasized egalitarian villages with communal kilns, though emerging craft specialization hints at hierarchical tendencies. Manuring practices enhanced soil fertility, enabling sustained agriculture in the loess soils. In the Yangtze River basin, parallel Neolithic developments included the Jiahu culture (circa 7000–5700 BCE) in Province, where early cultivation, sophisticated , and possible symbols on shells represent some of the earliest agricultural innovations in the region. Further downstream, the (5500–3300 BCE) in Province featured advanced wet- farming, dry-land cultivation of millet and soybeans, and well-preserved wooden pile-dwellings, indicating adaptation to the subtropical wetland environments. The subsequent (3300–2300 BCE) in the showcased complex social structures with extensive jade-working, ritual altars, and systems, such as dams and canals, evidencing early urbanism and elite hierarchies. The (3000–1900 BCE), succeeding Yangshao in the and adjacent regions, introduced more complex societies marked by black and defensive architecture. Longshan , renowned for its thin-walled, burnished black wares resembling eggshells, evolved through regional phases, with wheel-thrown forms and incised designs indicating advanced technologies reaching temperatures over 1200°C. Sites such as in Province feature large walled settlements enclosing up to 280 hectares, with moats and rammed-earth fortifications protecting villages of thousands, suggesting intergroup conflict or resource control amid climatic shifts. These enclosures housed elite burials with and items, pointing to nascent chiefdoms. In the northeastern extensions of the drainage, the (4700–2900 BCE) developed alongside these central traditions, emphasizing complexity in the Inner Mongolian and borderlands. Known for exquisite artifacts, including cong tubes and bi discs carved from sourced from distant rivers, Hongshan sites like Niuheliang reveal complexes with stepped pyramids, stone circles, and temple foundations up to 25 meters high. Recent excavations at Yuanbaoshan, announced in 2025, uncovered over 100 items, including the largest known Hongshan dragon pendant (15.8 cm), illuminating a sophisticated belief system involving ancestor worship and astronomical alignments. These monumental constructions, integrated with burial mounds, underscore and the system's influence on later East Asian traditions. Southern river valleys, particularly Yangtze tributaries in Yunnan Province, show parallel Neolithic trajectories shaped by migrations. Ancient DNA from 2025 genomic studies of 127 prehistoric individuals spanning approximately 7100 to 1400 years ago from sites like those in the Dian Basin reveals multi-wave population movements, with up to 40% ancestry linked to Austroasiatic speakers from Southeast Asia, admixed with northern Yellow River farmers. These genomes document gene flow from highland groups related to modern Tibetans, facilitating adaptations to diverse riverine environments and introducing rice alongside millet. Such interactions highlight the river valleys as conduits for genetic and cultural exchange in prehistoric East Asia.

Korean and Japanese Prehistory

The prehistoric record of the Korean Peninsula and Japanese Archipelago begins in the Upper Paleolithic, with evidence of human occupation dating back to approximately 40,000 BCE, marked by stone tools and hunting implements indicative of mobile hunter-gatherer societies adapted to forested and coastal environments. In Japan, early sites such as those in the Iwate Prefecture reveal microblade technologies and faunal remains from around 35,000 to 30,000 BCE, suggesting seasonal exploitation of deer and marine resources, while Korean sites like Hwasun Cave yield similar lithic assemblages from 40,000 BCE onward, reflecting migrations across the exposed land bridges during the Last Glacial Maximum. These Paleolithic populations transitioned into the Incipient Jōmon period in Japan around 16,000 BCE, characterized by the emergence of cord-marked pottery—the world's oldest known—and semi-sedentary foraging strategies that included nut gathering, fishing, and the use of bows and arrows for hunting. Jōmon pottery, with its distinctive impressions from twisted cords, facilitated boiling and storage, supporting small pit-house villages in regions like Kyushu and Honshu, where archaeological evidence from sites such as Odai Yamamoto I underscores a reliance on diverse wild resources without full agriculture. On the Korean Peninsula, the Neolithic Chulmun period commenced around 8,000 BCE, featuring comb-patterned pottery that evolved from incised designs to more elaborate motifs, associated with semi-permanent settlements and intensified foraging along rivers and coasts. Early rice cultivation appeared by approximately 3,500 BCE, introduced from northern Chinese regions via the basin, with evidence from sites like Chulmun-motae indicating initial dry-field farming that supplemented gathering economies. Genetic analyses of from Korean Neolithic and sites, published in 2024, reveal significant Jōmon-related ancestry in some individuals, linking them to broader Northeast Asian populations and highlighting shared genetic heritage with the Ainu through Jōmon intermediaries, as seen in mitochondrial haplogroups and autosomal markers from burials in the Han River valley. This period also saw the proliferation of shell middens, such as those at Dongsam-dong in , Korea, and various Jōmon coastal sites in like the Tōkyō Bay middens, which accumulated and shells from 6,000 BCE, evidencing specialized marine exploitation and seasonal aggregations of up to several hundred people. By 1,500 BCE, the Mumun period in Korea marked a prelude to the , with plain, unadorned pottery replacing Chulmun styles and the appearance of dolmens—megalithic tombs numbering over 40,000 on the peninsula—as elite burial markers reflecting emerging social hierarchies and ritual practices. These dolmens, often table-like structures of massive stones, contained grave goods like daggers imported initially from the Eurasian steppes via , signaling the onset of metallurgical influences around 1,000 BCE. In parallel, wet-rice terraces began to develop in coastal lowlands of both regions during the and early , with terrace-like features at Korean sites such as those in the basin and Japanese Jōmon-Yayoi transition zones around 1,000 BCE, enabling irrigated paddies that boosted productivity and population densities in fertile alluvial areas. Chinese cultural influences, particularly in strains and motifs, are evident in these developments but remained secondary to local adaptations in temperate foraging traditions. This era culminated around 300 BCE with intensified agro-pastoral economies, setting the stage for proto-historic states while preserving elements of Jōmon and Chulmun continuity in and genetics.

Prehistory of Southeast Asia

Island and Mainland Dispersals

The early human dispersals into involved both mainland and island pathways, facilitated by fluctuating sea levels during the Pleistocene. On the mainland, the technocomplex represents a widespread pebble-tool industry associated with populations, spanning from approximately 40,000 BCE to 3,000 BCE across sites in , , , , and southwest (e.g., Xiaodong rockshelter). These tools, often unifacially flaked cobbles known as sumatraliths and discoids, indicate adaptations to forested and riverine environments, with evidence of plant processing and faunal exploitation. Island dispersals were enabled by coastal migration routes during periods of low sea levels, when the connected the mainland to islands like and , forming a until around 10,000 BCE. These routes extended into , requiring for crossings to (the Pleistocene landmass of and ), with modern humans arriving in the region by at least 50,000 years ago. A key site is Niah Cave in , where the earliest Homo sapiens remains, including the "Deep Skull" burial dated to around 45,000–40,000 BCE, provide evidence of sustained occupation and deliberate interment practices in a tropical cave setting. Archaic human persistence is highlighted by fossils from Callao Cave in the , dated to 67,000–50,000 BCE, featuring curved phalanges and small teeth suggestive of arboreal adaptations and coexistence with incoming modern humans. Recent archaeological updates from Gua Harimau in (as of 2025) reveal over 80 prehistoric burials and the first documented in the cave, dating to the , indicating symbolic behaviors and health issues like among early island populations. These findings underscore overlapping dispersals and cultural developments up to 10,000 BCE, distinct from later post-glacial shifts.

Hoabinhian and Neolithic Phases

The culture represents a key Late to forager tradition in , spanning approximately 40,000 BCE to 3,000 BCE, characterized by the use of unifacial flaked pebble tools adapted for processing plants and animals in diverse environments across , , and surrounding regions. These tools, often made on cobbles or pebbles for chopping and scraping (e.g., sumatraliths and discoid scrapers), reflect a persistence of pebble-tool technologies from earlier phases, enabling efficient exploitation of tropical forests and riverine resources without reliance on polished implements. Sites in , such as Hoa Binh Cave, and in , like Tham Lod rockshelter, yield assemblages indicating mobile lifestyles with seasonal mobility. A prominent example of early plant management within the framework is evident at Spirit Cave in northwestern , dated to around 9,000 BCE, where charred remains of (Colocasia esculenta) and beans (Vigna spp.) alongside wild nuts and fruits suggest intentional gathering and possibly proto-cultivation practices. Excavations by Chester Gorman in the 1960s recovered these botanicals from stratified layers associated with Hoabinhian tools, radiocarbon-dated to 10,000–7,000 years BP, marking one of the earliest indications of vegetative crop tending in before full . This evidence challenges purely models, pointing to a gradual intensification of plant use that bridged and transitions. Transitioning into the phase around 4,000 BCE, cultural developments in the and laid foundations for the Lapita tradition, marked by the appearance of red-slipped that facilitated storage and cooking in emerging settled communities. These plain, red-slipped wares, often found in coastal sites like Nagsabaran in northern , represent an Austronesian-linked ceramic innovation derived from earlier Taiwanese Neolithic prototypes, enabling maritime-oriented economies. The Lapita culture's origins in this region underscore a shift toward production and seafaring, with dentate-stamped designs evolving from these simpler forms by 3,500–3,000 BCE. Recent archaeological findings in , including over 200 prehistoric rock paintings in Tham Pha Mue Cave (discovered 2025) and human fossils at sites like Tam Pà Ling (updated 2024), provide insights into cultural precursors to Austronesian societies, depicting hand stencils and human figures that suggest ritual practices and symbolic expression. These discoveries, analyzed through pigment dating and contextual , highlight continuity in artistic and mortuary traditions that influenced later Austronesian expansions into island . Parallel to these material advances, the of chickens (Gallus gallus) and pigs (Sus scrofa) occurred in Island around 4,000–3,000 BCE, with genetic and osteological evidence tracing their integration into Austronesian societies via migrations from and the . Chickens, likely domesticated from in northern , spread rapidly as a portable protein source, while pigs—introduced from mainland Asian lineages—supported feasting and exchange networks, as confirmed by from sites. These animals' dispersal, evidenced in Lapita assemblages across the Pacific, amplified mobility and cultural connectivity.

Technological and Cultural Advances

Lithic Technologies

Lithic technologies in prehistoric evolved from simple flaking methods to more sophisticated prepared-core techniques, reflecting adaptations to diverse environments and resource availability. The earliest evidence of production in dates to approximately 1.8 million years ago at the site in Georgia, where manufactured basic chopping tools by removing flakes from pebble cores, similar to the industry observed in . These rudimentary tools, consisting of hammerstones and sharp-edged flakes, were used for butchering and processing materials, marking the initial human dispersal into Eurasian landscapes. By the late Middle Pleistocene, more advanced prepared-core methods emerged, exemplified by the , which allowed for the controlled production of predetermined flake shapes from a prepared core. Archaeological evidence from Guanyindong Cave in southwest indicates Levallois technology was present between 170,000 and 80,000 years ago, challenging earlier assumptions of its limited adoption in and suggesting independent development or diffusion from western regions. This technique improved tool efficiency by enabling the creation of sharper, more uniform flakes suitable for and diverse tasks, representing a significant cognitive advance in strategies across Asia. During the Upper Paleolithic, around 45,000 years ago, microlithic technologies became widespread, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, where small stone tools (typically under 40 mm) were produced through bipolar reduction of and other fine-grained materials. At Fa-Hien Lena Cave in , dated to 48,000–45,000 calibrated years BP, these microliths formed part of composite tools, such as hafted projectiles and cutting implements, facilitating specialized hunting of arboreal prey and plant processing in rainforest environments. This adoption enhanced tool versatility and portability, supporting mobile lifestyles amid climatic fluctuations. The period, beginning around 10,000 BCE, introduced ground stone technologies focused on polishing and grinding, shifting emphasis toward sedentary plant-based economies. In , at the Donghulin site (9220–8750 cal BC), grinding stones—comprising slabs and handstones—bear starch residues from acorns and possibly cereals, indicating their role in processing wild plants to support early and agricultural experimentation. Polished adzes and axes, crafted by abrading hard stones like , emerged concurrently for and land clearance, enabling forest modification and cultivation across Asian river valleys. A notable regional variant was the microblade tradition in , which persisted from the Late into the early . The earliest well-dated evidence comes from Shizitan 29 in , , around 26,000–24,000 calibrated years BP, where pressure-knapping produced narrow blades (2–8 mm wide) from conical or wedge-shaped cores, often using to improve flaking properties. These microblades were inset into handles for composite hunting weapons and sickles, adapting to cold conditions and facilitating efficient resource exploitation during the .

Emergence of Writing Systems

The emergence of writing systems in prehistoric Asia marked a pivotal transition from oral and symbolic traditions to recorded communication, beginning around 3500 BCE in the region's western expanses. These early scripts, often evolving from such as pictographic and seals, facilitated the administration of increasingly complex societies. In , Sumerian represents the earliest known system, originating circa 3200 BCE as impressions on clay tablets derived from small clay used for goods like and . Initially pictographic and numerical, it served practical needs in and temple economies, recording transactions and allocations that supported urban growth in cities like . Over time, expanded to include phonetic elements, enabling administrative documents, legal codes, and religious hymns, thus underpinning governance and ritual practices across Sumerian city-states. Concurrent developments occurred in adjacent regions, with appearing in southwestern around 3100 BCE, primarily on clay tablets from sites like and Tepe Yahya. This undeciphered system, comprising about 1,600 known inscriptions, paralleled Sumerian cuneiform in its administrative focus, using numerical notations and ideograms to document economic activities such as resource distribution and labor management in early Elamite polities. Further east, the Indus Valley Script first appeared around 2800–2600 BCE in the late Early Harappan phase, becoming prominent during the mature phase (2600–1900 BCE) of the Harappan civilization, featuring short sequences of undeciphered symbols—typically 4-5 signs—impressed on steatite seals unearthed at urban centers like and . These artifacts, often depicting animals alongside motifs, likely functioned as seals for commodities, evidencing roles in trade regulation, taxation, and craft licensing within a vast network spanning modern and northwest . As of 2025, efforts to decipher the script continue, with the offering a $1 million prize announced in February 2025 to encourage breakthroughs. Archaeological contexts, including standardized weights found near gateways, suggest the script enforced economic controls and facilitated long-distance exchange of goods like and . In , the transition to full writing is exemplified by Chinese , dating to approximately 1200 BCE during the late at sites like (). Inscribed on turtle plastrons and ox scapulae, this logographic system—comprising over 4,000 characters, many recognizable in modern Chinese—evolved from earlier pottery marks and served primarily for divinatory purposes, recording royal queries to ancestors about warfare, harvests, and rituals. These inscriptions reveal a religious framework where kings acted as intermediaries with the divine, integrating script into state ideology and ancestor worship. Across these Asian regions, early writing systems not only streamlined administration and trade but also embedded religious authority, transforming ephemeral knowledge into enduring records that defined the close of . For instance, cuneiform tablets preserved Sumerian myths like the , while oracle bones chronicled Shang cosmology, illustrating script's role in cultural transmission.

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