Hubbry Logo
Star and crescentStar and crescentMain
Open search
Star and crescent
Community hub
Star and crescent
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Contribute something
Star and crescent
Star and crescent
Star and crescent
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Ancient design of the star and crescent symbol as used in Byzantium in the 1st century BC.
The star and crescent symbol used in the minted coins of the Sassanian Empire from the 3rd century until the 7th century. This coin was coined under Ardashir III.
The Adoration of the Magi by Stephan Lochner; on the left, the star and crescent is depicted in the flag of representatives of Byzantium.

The conjoined representation of a star and a crescent is used in various historical contexts, including as a prominent symbol of the Ottoman Empire, and in contemporary times, as a national symbol by some countries, and by some Muslims as a symbol of Islam,[1] while other Muslims reject it as an Islamic symbol.[2] It was developed in the Greek colony of Byzantium ca. 300 BC, though it became more widely used as the royal emblem of Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator after he incorporated Byzantium into his kingdom for a short period.[3] During the 5th century, it was present in coins minted by the Persian Sassanian Empire; the symbol was represented in the coins minted across the empire throughout the Middle East for more than 400 years from the 3rd century until the fall of the Sassanians after the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century.[4] The conquering Muslim rulers kept the symbol in their coinage during the early years of the caliphate, as the coins were exact replicas of the Sassanian coins.

Both elements of the symbol have a long history in the iconography of the Ancient Near East as representing either the Sun and Moon or the Moon and Venus (Morning Star) (or their divine personifications). It has been suggested that the crescent actually represents Venus,[5][6] or the Sun during an eclipse.[7] Coins with star and crescent symbols represented separately have a longer history, with possible ties to older Mesopotamian iconography. The star, or Sun, is often shown within the arc of the crescent (also called star in crescent, or star within crescent, for disambiguation of depictions of a star and a crescent side by side).[8] In numismatics in particular, the term pellet within crescent is used in cases where the star is simplified to a single dot.[9]

The combination is found comparatively rarely in late medieval and early modern heraldry. It rose to prominence with its adoption as the flag and national symbol of the Ottoman Empire and some of its administrative divisions (eyalets and vilayets) and later in the 19th-century Westernizing tanzimat (reforms). The Ottoman flag of 1844, with a white ay-yıldız (Turkish for "crescent-star") on a red background, continues in use as the flag of the Republic of Turkey, with minor modifications. Other states formerly part of the Ottoman Empire also used the symbol, including Libya (1951–1969 and after 2011), Tunisia (1831) and Algeria (1958). The same symbol was used in other national flags introduced during the 20th century, including the flags of Kazakhstan (1917), Azerbaijan (1918), Pakistan (1947), Malaysia (1948), Singapore (1959), Mauritania (1959), Azad Kashmir (1974), Uzbekistan (1991), Turkmenistan (1991) and Comoros (2001). In the latter 20th century, the star and crescent have acquired a popular interpretation as a "symbol of Islam",[1] occasionally embraced by Arab nationalism or Islamism in the 1970s to 1980s but often rejected as erroneous or unfounded by Muslim commentators in more recent times.[2] Unlike the cross, which is a symbol of Jesus' crucifixion in Christianity, there is no solid link that connects the star and crescent symbol with the concept of Islam. The connotation is widely believed to have come from the flag of the Ottoman Empire, whose prestige as an Islamic empire and caliphate led to the adoption of its state emblem as a symbol of Islam by association.

History

[edit]
The natural phenomenon of a conjunction of the crescent Moon and, in this case, Venus; respectively the second and third brightest natural objects in Earth's sky

Origins and predecessors

[edit]
Sealing depicting the Neo Sumerian King, Ibbi-Sin seated with a star or Dingir and crescent adjacent to him
Depiction of the emblems of Ishtar (Venus), Sin (Moon), and Shamash (Sun) on a boundary stone of Meli-Shipak II (12th century BC)
Venus, Sun and Moon on the Stele of Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC) found at Harran (Şanlıurfa Museum)[10]

Crescents appearing together with a star or stars are a common feature of Sumerian iconography, the crescent usually being associated with the moon god Sin (Nanna) and the star with Ishtar (Inanna, i.e. Venus), often placed alongside the sun disk of Shamash.[11][12]

In Late Bronze Age Canaan, star and crescent moon motifs are also found on Moabite name seals.[13]

The Egyptian hieroglyphs representing "moon" (
N11
N11) and "star" (
N14
N14) appear in ligature, forming a star-and-crescent shape
N11
N14
, as a determiner for the word for "month", ꜣbd.[14]

The depiction of the "star and crescent" or "star inside crescent" as it would later develop in Bosporan Kingdom is difficult to trace to Mesopotamian art. Exceptionally, a combination of the crescent of Sin with the five-pointed star of Ishtar, with the star placed inside the crescent as in the later Hellenistic-era symbol, placed among numerous other symbols, is found in a boundary stone of Nebuchadnezzar I (12th century BC; found in Nippur by John Henry Haynes in 1896).[15] An example of such an arrangement is also found in the (highly speculative) reconstruction of a fragmentary stele of Ur-Nammu (Third Dynasty of Ur) discovered in the 1920s.[16]

A very early depiction of the symbol (crescent moon, stars and sun disc) is found on the Nebra sky disc, dating from c. 1800 – c. 1600 BC (Nebra, Germany). A gold signet ring from Mycenae dating from the 15th century BC also shows the symbol. The star and crescent (or 'crescent and pellet') symbol appears 19 times on the Berlin Gold Hat, dating from c. 1000 BC.

Classical antiquity

[edit]

Greeks and Romans

[edit]
Further information: Byzantium § Emblem

Many ancient Greek (classical and hellenistic) and Roman amulets which depict stars and crescent have been found.[17]

Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontus (r. 120–63 BC) used an eight rayed star with a crescent moon as his emblem. McGing (1986) notes the association of the star and crescent with Mithradates VI, discussing its appearance on his coins, and its survival in the coins of the Bosporan Kingdom where "[t]he star and crescent appear on Pontic royal coins from the time of Mithradates III and seem to have had oriental significance as a dynastic badge of the Mithridatic family, or the arms of the country of Pontus."[18] Several possible interpretations of the emblem have been proposed. In most of these, the "star" is taken to represent the Sun. The combination of the two symbols has been taken as representing Sun and Moon (and by extension Day and Night), the Zoroastrian Mah and Mithra,[19] or deities arising from Greek-Anatolian-Iranian syncretism, the crescent representing Mēn Pharnakou (Μήν Φαρνακου, the local moon god[20]) and the "star" (Sun) representing Ahuramazda (in interpretatio graeca called Zeus Stratios)[21][22]

By the late Hellenistic or early Roman period, the star and crescent motif had been associated to some degree with Byzantium. If any goddess had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was Hecate. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Hecate was considered the patron goddess of Byzantium because she was said to have saved the city from an attack by Philip of Macedon in 340 BC by the appearance of a bright light in the sky. To commemorate the event the Byzantines erected a statue of the goddess known as the Lampadephoros ("torch-bearer" or "torch-bringer").[23]

Some Byzantine coins of the 1st century BC and later show the head of Artemis with bow and quiver, and feature a crescent with what appears to be a six-rayed star on the reverse.

  • Star and crescent on a coin of Uranopolis, Macedon, ca. 300 BC (see also Argead star).
    Star and crescent on a coin of Uranopolis, Macedon, ca. 300 BC (see also Argead star).
  • A star and crescent symbol with the star shown in a sixteen-rayed "sunburst" design (3rd century BC) on the Ai-Khanoum plaque.[24]
    A star and crescent symbol with the star shown in a sixteen-rayed "sunburst" design (3rd century BC) on the Ai-Khanoum plaque.[24]
  • Coin of Mithradates VI Eupator. The obverse side has the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΙΘΡΑΔΑΤΟΥ ΕΥΠΑΤΟΡΟΣ with a stag feeding, with the star and crescent and monogram of Pergamum placed near the stag's head, all in an ivy-wreath.[25]
    Coin of Mithradates VI Eupator. The obverse side has the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΙΘΡΑΔΑΤΟΥ ΕΥΠΑΤΟΡΟΣ with a stag feeding, with the star and crescent and monogram of Pergamum placed near the stag's head, all in an ivy-wreath.[25]
  • Roman-era coin with Greek inscription (1st century AD) with a bust of Artemis on the obverse and an eight-rayed star within a crescent on the reverse side.
    Roman-era coin with Greek inscription (1st century AD) with a bust of Artemis on the obverse and an eight-rayed star within a crescent on the reverse side.

The moon-goddess Selene is commonly depicted with a crescent moon, often accompanied by two stars (the stars represent Phosphorus, the morning star, and Hesperus, the evening star); sometimes, instead of a crescent, a lunar disc is used.[26][27][28][29] Often a crescent moon rests on her brow, or the cusps of a crescent moon protrude, horn-like, from her head, or from behind her head or shoulders.[30]

  • The Moon-goddess Selene or Luna accompanied by the Dioscuri, or Phosphoros (the Morning Star) and Hesperos (the Evening Star). Marble altar, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD. From Italy.
    The Moon-goddess Selene or Luna accompanied by the Dioscuri, or Phosphoros (the Morning Star) and Hesperos (the Evening Star). Marble altar, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD. From Italy.
  • The goddess Selene, illustration from Meyers Lexikon, 1890
    The goddess Selene, illustration from Meyers Lexikon, 1890

In the 2nd century, the star-within-crescent is found on the obverse side of Roman coins minted during the rule of Hadrian, Geta, Caracalla and Septimius Severus, in some cases as part of an arrangement of a crescent and seven stars, one or several of which were placed inside the crescent.[31]

Iran (Persia)

[edit]

The star and crescent symbol appears on some coins of the Parthian vassal kingdom of Elymais in the late 1st century AD. The same symbol is present in coins that are possibly associated with Orodes I of Parthia (1st century BC). In the 2nd century AD, some Parthian coins show a simplified "pellet within crescent" symbol.[32]

  • A star and crescent appearing (separately) on the obverse side of a coin of Orodes II of Parthia (r. 57–37 BC).
    A star and crescent appearing (separately) on the obverse side of a coin of Orodes II of Parthia (r. 57–37 BC).
  • Coin of Vardanes I of Parthia (r. c. AD 40–45)
    Coin of Vardanes I of Parthia (r. c. AD 40–45)
A coin of Sassanid king Kavadh I during his second reign (r. 488–531). Kavadh was the first Sassanid ruler to introduce star-and-crescent motifs as decorations on the margin of the obverse side of his coins. Note the continued use of the star and the crescent appearing on either side of the king's head.

The star and crescent motif appears on the margin of Sassanid coins in the 5th century.[4] Sassanid rulers also appear to have used crowns featuring a crescent, sphere and crescent, or star and crescent.

Use of the star-and-crescent combination apparently goes back to the earlier appearance of a star and a crescent on Parthian coins, first under King Orodes II (1st century BC). In these coins, the two symbols occur separately, on either side of the king's head, and not yet in their combined star-and-crescent form. Such coins are also found further afield in Greater Persia, by the end of the 1st century AD in a coin issued by the Western Satraps ruler Chashtana.[33] This arrangement is likely inherited from its Ancient Near Eastern predecessors; the star and crescent symbols are not frequently found in Achaemenid iconography, but they are present in some cylinder seals of the Achaemenid era.[34]

Ayatollahi (2003) attempts to connect the modern adoption as an "Islamic symbol" to Sassanid coins remaining in circulation after the Islamic conquest [35] which is an analysis that stands in stark contrast to established consensus that there is no evidence for any connection of the symbol with Islam or the Ottomans prior to its adoption in Ottoman flags in the late 18th century.[36]

Western Turkic Khaganate

[edit]

Coins from the Western Turkic Khaganate had a crescent moon and a star, which held an important place in the worldview of ancient Turks and other peoples of Central Asia.[37]

Medieval and early modern

[edit]

Christian and classical heraldric usage

[edit]
Further information: Crescent (heraldry), Star (heraldry), and Sun (heraldry)

The crescent on its own is used in western heraldry from at least the 13th century, while the star and crescent (or "Sun and Moon") emblem is in use in medieval seals at least from the late 12th century. The crescent in pellet symbol is used in Crusader coins of the 12th century, in some cases duplicated in the four corners of a cross, as a variant of the cross-and-crosslets ("Jerusalem cross").[38] Many Crusader seals and coins show the crescent and the star (or blazing Sun) on either side of the ruler's head (as in the Sassanid tradition), e.g. Bohemond III of Antioch, Richard I of England, Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse.[39] At the same time, the star in crescent is found on the obverse of Crusader coins, e.g. in coins of the County of Tripoli minted under Raymond II or III c. 1140s–1160s show an "eight-rayed star with pellets above crescent".[40]

The star and crescent combination appears in attributed arms from the early 14th century, possibly in a coat of arms of c. 1330, possibly attributed to John Chrysostom,[41] and in the Wernigeroder Wappenbuch (late 15th century) attributed to one of the three Magi, named "Balthasar of Tarsus".[42]

Crescents (without the star) increase in popularity in early modern heraldry in Europe. Siebmachers Wappenbuch (1605) records 48 coats of arms of German families which include one or several crescents.[43]

A star and crescent symbolizing Croatia was commonly found on 13th-century banovac coins in the Kingdom of Slavonia, with a two-barred cross symbolizing the Kingdom of Hungary.[44]

St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna used to have at the top of its highest tower a golden crescent with a star; it came to be seen as a symbol of Islam and the Ottoman enemy, which is why it was replaced with a cross in 1686.[45]

In the late 16th century, the Korenić-Neorić Armorial shows a white star and crescent on a red field as the coat of arms of "Illyria".

The star and crescent combination remains rare prior to its adoption by the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 18th century.[citation needed]

Muslim usage

[edit]
Further information: Crescent § Middle ages

While the crescent on its own is depicted as an emblem used on Islamic war flags from the medieval period, at least from the 13th century although it does not seem to have been in frequent use until the 14th or 15th century,[49][50] the star and crescent in an Islamic context is more rare in the medieval period, but may occasionally be found in depictions of flags from the 14th century onward.

Some Mughal era (17th century) round shields were decorated with a crescent or star and crescent.

Use in the Ottoman Empire

[edit]
Further information: Flags of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Army approaching the city of Sofia in 1788.
Star-and-crescent flags of the Ottoman Empire. The first was used as the naval ensign and state symbol from the late 18th century, and as the official Ottoman national flag from 1844 to 1922; the second, is an eight-pointed variant of the first, used after 1844.

The adoption of star and crescent as the Ottoman state symbol started during the reign of Mustafa III (1757–1774) and its use became well-established during the periods of Abdul Hamid I (1774–1789) and Selim III (1789–1807).[51] A decree (buyruldu) from 1793 states that the ships in the Ottoman navy fly that flag, and various other documents from earlier and later years mention its use.[51] The ultimate source of the emblem is unclear. It is mostly derived from the star-and-crescent symbol used by the city of Constantinople in antiquity, possibly by association with the crescent design (without the star) used in Turkish flags since before 1453.[52]

With the Tanzimat reforms in the 19th century, flags were redesigned in the style of the European armies of the day. The flag of the Ottoman Navy was made red, as red was to be the flag of secular institutions and green of religious ones. As the reforms abolished all the various flags (standards) of the Ottoman pashaliks, beyliks and emirates, a single new Ottoman national flag was designed to replace them. The result was the red flag with the white crescent moon and star, which is the precursor to the modern flag of Turkey. A plain red flag was introduced as the civil ensign for all Ottoman subjects. The white crescent with an eight-pointed star on a red field is depicted as the flag of a "Turkish Man of War" in Colton's Delineation of Flags of All Nations (1862). Steenbergen's Vlaggen van alle Natiën of the same year shows a six-pointed star. A plate in Webster's Unabridged of 1882 shows the flag with an eight-pointed star labelled "Turkey, Man of war". The five-pointed star seems to have been present alongside these variants from at least 1857.

In addition to Ottoman imperial insignia, symbols appear on the flag of Bosnia Eyalet (1580–1867) and Bosnia Vilayet (1867–1908), as well as the flag of 1831 Bosnian revolt, while the symbols appeared on some representations of medieval Bosnian coat of arms too.

In the late 19th century, "Star and Crescent" came to be used as a metaphor for Ottoman rule in British literature.[53] The increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets led to a gradual association of the symbol with Islam in general in western Orientalism.[54] The "Red Crescent" emblem was used by volunteers of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the Russo-Turkish War; it was officially adopted in 1929.

After the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the new Turkish state maintained the last flag of the Ottoman Empire. Proportional standardisations were introduced in the Turkish Flag Law (Turkish: Türk Bayrağı Kanunu) of May 29, 1936. Besides the most prominent example of Turkey (see Flag of Turkey), a number of other Ottoman successor states adopted the design during the 20th century, including the Emirate of Cyrenaica and the Kingdom of Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and the proposed Arab Islamic Republic.

Contemporary use

[edit]

National flags

[edit]

The flag of Tunisia (1831) is the first to use the star and crescent design in 1831. This continues to be the Tunisian national flag post-independence. A decade later, the Ottoman flag of 1844 with a white "ay-yıldız" (Turkish for "crescent-star") on a red background continues to be in use as the flag of the Republic of Turkey with minor modifications.

Other states in the Ottoman sphere of influence using the star and crescent design in their flats such as Libya (1951, re-introduced 2011) and Algeria (1958). The modern emblem of Turkey shows the star outside the arc of the crescent, as it were a "realistic" depiction of a conjunction of Moon and Venus, while in the 19th century, the Ottoman star and crescent was occasionally still drawn as the star-within-crescent. By contrast, the designs of both the flags of Algeria and Tunisia (as well as Mauritania and Pakistan) place the star within the crescent.

The same symbol was used in other national flags introduced during the 20th century, including the flags of Kazakhstan (1917), Azerbaijan (1918, re-introduced 1991), the Rif Republic (1921), Pakistan (1947), Malaysia (1948), Mauritania (1959), Kashmir (1974) and the partially recognized states of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (1976) and Northern Cyprus (1983). The symbol also may represent flag of cities or emirates such as the emirate of Umm Al-Quwain.

National flags with a crescent alongside several stars:

National flags and coat of arms with star, crescent and other symbols:


Symbol of Islam

[edit]
Further information: Symbols of Islam
Used as the symbol of Islam by the Nation of Islam

By the mid-20th century, the symbol came to be re-interpreted as a symbol of Islam or the Muslim community.[55] This symbolism was embraced by movements of Arab nationalism or Islamism in the 1970s too, such as the proposed Arab Islamic Republic (1974) and the American Nation of Islam (1973).[56]

Cyril Glassé in his The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2001 edition, s.v. "Moon") states that "in the language of conventional symbols, the crescent and star have become the symbols of Islam as much as the cross is the symbol of Christianity."[1]

By contrast, Crescent magazine — a religious Islamic publication — quoted without giving names that "Many Muslim scholars reject using the crescent moon as a symbol of Islam".[2]

On February 28, 2017, it was announced by the Qira County government in Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang, China that those who reported others for stitching the 'star and crescent moon' insignia on their clothing or personal items or having the words 'East Turkestan' on their mobile phone case, purse or other jewelry, would be eligible for cash payments.[57]

Municipal coats of arms

[edit]

The star and crescent as a traditional heraldic charge is in continued use in numerous municipal coats of arms; notably that based on the Leliwa (Tarnowski) coat of arms in the case of Polish municipalities.

Diocesan Coat of Arms

[edit]

Sports Club Emblems

[edit]

In rugby union, Saracens F.C. incorporates the star and crescent in its crest. Drogheda United F.C., Portsmouth F.C., and S.U. Sintrense all borrow the star and crescent from their respective towns' coats of arms. Mohammedan SC in Kolkata, India also incorporates the symbol in its crest.

  • Emblem of Saracens F.C.
    Emblem of Saracens F.C.

Other uses

[edit]

Use in computer documents and printing

[edit]
Further information: Unicode input

The symbol has a codepoint in Unicode, which is U+262A ☪ STAR AND CRESCENT. The precise form of the symbol displayed or printed depends on the computer font chosen.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Star and crescent

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The and is an ancient emblem consisting of a moon juxtaposed with a , originating in Mesopotamian civilization where the symbolized the god (or Nanna) and the represented the goddess (or ), often denoting celestial bodies like the and . This motif appeared on , cylinder seals, and later on coins from Hellenistic city-states such as (circa 300 BC), where it was linked to lunar omens and deities like or , and persisted through Parthian, Sassanian, and Roman eras as a decorative or astronomical symbol. The symbol's adoption by the in the 15th century, following the conquest of —which had used the as a civic —elevated its status, integrating it into military standards and flags by the , thereby associating it with Turkic-Islamic imperial identity despite its pre-Islamic pagan and astronomical roots devoid of Quranic or prophetic endorsement. Today, it adorns flags of numerous Muslim-majority nations like , , and , symbolizing sovereignty or cultural heritage, though purist Islamic perspectives critique its use as a vestige of polytheistic incompatible with (strict monotheism). Its defining characteristic lies in this layered , reflecting continuity from ancient astral worship to modern national symbolism, unmoored from any singular religious doctrine.

Pre-Islamic Origins

Ancient Near Eastern and Mesopotamian Predecessors

In Mesopotamian , the served as a primary symbol for the god (also Nanna or Suen), evoking the horizontal arc of the waxing akin to bull horns, an association rooted in third-millennium BCE astronomical observations and polytheistic cult practices centered at . This motif appeared standalone on cylinder seals, stelae, and objects from the Early Dynastic period (c. 2900–2350 BCE), denoting lunar cycles and divine favor without integration into composite emblems. Archaeological evidence from sites like and confirms its use in astral worship, where embodied nocturnal illumination and fertility, unlinked to monotheistic frameworks. The star motif, typically eight-pointed, represented the goddess Ishtar (Sumerian ), tied to as the morning and evening star, symbolizing war, love, and celestial transit in Babylonian astral lore from c. 2000 BCE onward. This emblem featured independently on seals and amulets, reflecting empirical tracking of Venus's visibility patterns, as documented in texts and glyptic art predating unified pairings. While crescent and star symbols co-occurred in polytheistic contexts—such as on boundary stones from the Kassite period (c. 1600–1155 BCE), where they functioned as separate divine insignias invoking and Ishtar for protection—no archaeological instances fuse them into a conjoined star-within-crescent emblem. These pairings arose from shared astral observation in rituals and texts, emphasizing causal celestial phenomena over symbolic synthesis, with evidence limited to standalone or adjacent motifs on artifacts like the Melishipak (c. 1186–1171 BCE). Such usage underscores Mesopotamian predecessors' empirical focus on discrete planetary and lunar indicators in polytheistic cosmology.

Development in Classical Greece and Byzantium

The star and crescent motif emerged as a civic emblem in the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium during the late Classical period, with numismatic evidence dating to approximately 300 BCE. Bronze coins issued by the city depict an eight-pointed star positioned above or within a crescent moon on the reverse side, often accompanying the city's name in Greek script. This design likely served as a protective symbol, reflecting local astronomical observations or divine favor rather than a standardized imperial iconography. The symbol's adoption in is traditionally linked to the cult of , a chthonic associated with the , crossroads, and nocturnal protection, whose worship was prominent from the city's founding circa 667 BCE. Ancient accounts describe intervening during a by in 340 BCE, misleading attackers with illusory lights and thereby saving the defenders; in gratitude, the Byzantines reportedly elevated her symbols, including lunar motifs, as civic badges. While 's primary attributes included torches and keys, her with lunar deities like and — depicted with crescents as headdresses or emblems—provided a basis for the star and crescent pairing, symbolizing vigilance and celestial guidance over the strategically vital city. Following Emperor Constantine I's refounding of as in 330 CE, the motif persisted as a municipal amid the transition to Christian rule, appearing on select Roman-era coins with Greek inscriptions that evoke continuity with Hellenistic traditions. For instance, 1st-century CE issues feature the enclosing a star alongside busts of , underscoring the symbol's ties to pre-Christian lunar cults without supplanting emerging imperial Christian imagery like the Chi-Rho. Numismatic records indicate no exclusive religious connotation in the Byzantine context, where the design functioned pragmatically as a marker of the city's Thracian-Bosporus heritage rather than doctrinal endorsement.

Usage in Hellenistic, Persian, and Turkic Contexts

In the Hellenistic kingdom of Pontus, the star and crescent emerged as a royal emblem on coins struck by the Mithridatic dynasty, beginning with Mithridates III (r. 200–185 BCE) and prominently featured under Mithridates VI Eupator (r. 120–63 BCE). These tetradrachms and staters, minted at cities like Amisos and Sinope, depicted the symbols separately or conjoined, often flanking the king's diademed bust or appearing in the field, symbolizing dynastic authority and ties to astral deities associated with sovereignty in the Black Sea region. The emblem referenced the sun and moon's dominion over Pontus's coastal territories, reinforcing the ruler's claim to divine favor without explicit religious connotation beyond imperial legitimacy. The Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE) incorporated the star and crescent on drachms and other denominations, as seen on issues of Orodes II (r. 57–37 BCE) where the symbols appeared separately on the obverse alongside the king's portrait, and under Vardanes I (r. ca. 40–46 CE) in the reverse field near the archer figure. These motifs drew from Mesopotamian astral traditions, evoking celestial protection and royal investiture to legitimize Arsacid rule amid Hellenistic and Persian influences. In the succeeding Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE), the symbols persisted on silver drachms of rulers like Khosrow II (r. 590–628 CE) and Hormizd IV (r. 579–590 CE), often in the outer margins or fields, and on stamp seals carved from stone or crystal, where a star above a crescent signified eternal kingship tied to Zoroastrian cosmology's emphasis on cosmic order. Rock reliefs, such as those at Naqsh-e Rostam, occasionally integrated stellar elements in regalia, though the coinage and seals provide the most direct numismatic evidence of astral legitimacy for imperial propagation. Among pre-Islamic Turkic nomadic groups, including those under the Göktürk Khaganate (552–744 CE), celestial motifs akin to the star and crescent appeared in clan tamgas (tribal emblems) inscribed on Central Asian and artifacts, reflecting shamanistic reverence for sky deities like without Islamic overlay. These symbols, predating widespread conversion in the 8th–10th centuries CE, served as markers of tribal authority and harmony with nomadic cosmology, potentially influenced by prior Persian contacts via trade routes.

Adoption and Evolution in Islamic Contexts

Early Encounters and Limited Pre-Ottoman Use

The star and crescent symbol finds no mention in the or authentic collections, nor was it employed as an emblem by Prophet Muhammad or the Caliphs (632–661 CE), reflecting its absence from foundational Islamic doctrine and early governance practices. This empirical void underscores the motif's lack of prophetic or scriptural endorsement, distinguishing it from symbols rooted in religious . Early Muslim rulers under the (661–750 CE) encountered the design through the replication of Sassanian coinage in conquered Persian territories, where drachms often featured a star within a atop the fire or royal crown, serving as a holdover from Zoroastrian imperial rather than an adopted Islamic signifier. Such usages remained administrative and non-religious, with inscriptions gradually supplanting Pahlavi script but preserving pre-Islamic visual elements for continuity in trade and minting. Under the (750–1258 CE), similar sporadic appearances persisted on transitional coins, yet the symbol did not evolve into a standardized or doctrinally sanctioned emblem, as evidenced by its marginal role amid the caliphate's emphasis on and avoidance of pagan-derived motifs. In the 11th–12th centuries, Seljuk Turks introduced the star and crescent into Anatolian Muslim contexts, likely drawing from Central Asian Turkic traditions or local Hellenistic-Persian legacies encountered during migrations and conquests, though without integration into Quranic exegesis or prophetic traditions. Architectural and epigraphic evidence from Seljuk principalities remains scant for the combined motif, indicating limited, non-canonical deployment that prioritized functional or cultural continuity over religious symbolism. This pattern of inheritance from antecedent pagan and imperial sources—rather than endogenous Islamic innovation—highlights the symbol's peripheral status prior to broader Turkic imperial adoption.

Standardization under the Ottoman Empire

Following the conquest of on May 29, 1453, Sultan (r. 1432–1444, 1451–1481) integrated motifs into Ottoman military banners, utilizing a adorned with three crescents on his imperial during the siege. This incorporation stemmed from the prevalence of symbols in the Byzantine city, which Ottoman forces encountered and repurposed as an auspicious emblem to signify victory and continuity of imperial prestige. Such adaptation exemplified pragmatic continuity rather than innovation, enabling to blend captured Christian precedents with emerging Ottoman identity for governance over newly acquired territories. In the , Sultan (r. 1512–1520) further employed red flags bearing crescents during expansions, including the 1517 conquest of , where he planted such a alongside a white one to assert dominance. These standards drew from Turkic-Hunnic legacies while incorporating elements from Persian and Levantine regions subdued in campaigns like Chaldiran (1514), fostering visual unity amid administrative integration of heterogeneous populations. The crescent's prominence on regalia and mosque decorations symbolized sultanic authority over temporal domains, prioritizing empire consolidation over doctrinal symbolism. Standardization intensified from the late , with the star and crescent conjunction (known in Turkish as ay-yıldız, meaning "moon-star") appearing consistently on flags and ensigns under (r. 1789–1807), who introduced a red field with yellow crescents, evolving to include stars by 1844 under Abdulmecid (r. 1839–1861), influencing the design of the modern Turkish flag. Archival chronicles, such as Raşid's records, document this progression through practical reforms rather than formal theological edicts, reflecting a synthesis of pre-existing motifs for bureaucratic efficiency and imperial cohesion across the vast realm. This unified motif on naval vessels, standards, and public reinforced causal mechanisms of and order, harnessing blended Turkic, Persian, and Byzantine aesthetics to sustain dynastic rule without reliance on religious imperatives.

Spread through Turkic and Muslim Empires

The star and crescent, having gained prominence as an Ottoman emblem by the late , disseminated to Turkic vassal states and independent Muslim polities in and the Black Sea region through diplomatic, , and cultural exchanges. In the , a key Ottoman ally until Russian annexation in 1783, the symbol featured on standards and seals depicted in 18th-century European engravings of treaties, such as those from the Russo-Turkish wars, marking ethnic Tatar identity tied to Istanbul's . Similar adoption occurred in Mughal via 18th-century diplomatic engravings, where the symbol appeared alongside Persianate motifs on some courtly artifacts, reflecting Ottoman-Timurid influences amid alliances against common foes like the Safavids. Post-Ottoman dissolution in the early saw the symbol persist as an ethnic marker among Balkan Muslim communities, including and Albanian groups, in local emblems and decorations amid the declining caliphate's influence. Archival records from the reforms (1839–1876) document its use in community petitions and flags for Muslim militias in regions like Bosnia, distinguishing them from emerging Christian national movements. In Central Asian khanates, such as (lasting until Russian conquest in 1873), a green banner with a white and star served as the state ensign in the , evidenced by period illustrations and captured standards. Artifacts from 18th–20th century sites, including textiles and metalwork from these regions, reveal adaptations like eight-pointed stars in Crimean examples versus five-pointed ones in Khivan flags, or inverted crescents in Balkan variants, underscoring localized stylistic over rigid prescription. These variations, cataloged in collections of diplomatic gifts and battlefield trophies, highlight via trade routes like the rather than doctrinal uniformity across Muslim polities.

Non-Islamic and Heraldic Applications

Christian and European Heraldry

The star and crescent motif entered Western European heraldry through Crusader interactions with Byzantine symbolism during the late 12th century. King Richard I of England featured two crescents each surmounted by a star on the obverse of his first great seal, issued circa 1189, interpreting the crescent as emblematic of his crusading pilgrimage and the star as celestial guidance. This design echoed earlier Byzantine usage, where the combined symbol adorned coins and municipal emblems of Constantinople, signifying astronomical or protective attributes in a Christian context. Richard's second seal, from 1198, retained a single star over crescent, influencing subsequent English badges and arms. The Plantagenet dynasty employed the star and crescent as a badge, appearing in royal standards from the 12th to 14th centuries, often denoting hope or sovereignty under divine light rather than lunar deities. Municipal adoption followed, as in Portsmouth's arms, granted via royal charter in 1194, displaying an azure field with an orle of eight points (star) above a crescent, symbolizing naval protection and orientation by heavenly bodies for the port's maritime role. The motif's origin traces to Richard's appropriation from the arms of Byzantine ruler , defeated in 1191, preserving pre-Islamic connotations of celestial harmony in Christian . Crusader seals, including those of Templar knights, commonly positioned the flanking equestrian or enthroned figures from the 12th to 13th centuries, functioning as differencing marks or honors for eastern campaigns without theological ties to . In these applications, the symbols evoked pagan astronomical roots adapted to Christian maritime and pilgrim motifs, distinct from Ottoman standardization.

Municipal and Diocesan Emblems

The star and crescent motif features in several European municipal coats of arms, serving as a heraldic charge with roots in pre-Islamic symbolism tied to maritime trade and classical heritage rather than ideological endorsement. The arms of , , established by royal grant circa 1190, display an argent crescent moon in her plenitude surmounted by an eight-pointed or blazing star on an azure field. This design originated from the great seal of King Richard I (r. 1189–1199), adopted during the Third Crusade from the blazon of Isaac Komnenos, Prince of , reflecting Anglo-Byzantine alliances and navigational motifs associated with Mediterranean commerce. Similarly, the Leliwa coat of arms—a golden crescent enclosing a six-pointed mullet—appears in municipal emblems of Polish localities linked to the Tarnowski magnate family, such as elements in the of , dating to 14th-century noble grants and symbolizing regional lordship without reference to lunar deities or conquest narratives. In Central European civic contexts, the symbol's adoption underscores practical continuity from ancient coinage and Byzantine trade routes, as seen in the arms of Halle, , where a and star variant predates Ottoman influences by centuries, likely derived from Roman-era provincial seals emphasizing astronomical navigation for Hanseatic commerce. These instances, documented in medieval charters like Portsmouth's 1214 confirmation by King John, prioritize local identity and economic utility over theological import. Diocesan emblems in Eastern Orthodox traditions occasionally incorporate crescent elements as vestiges of Byzantine imperial , adapted for without evangelistic connotation. In Russian Orthodox contexts, post-1480 synodal approvals for church constructions following III's conquest of integrated crescents beneath crosses on domes and seals, denoting dynastic heritage from Constantinople's state symbols rather than explicit triumph, as evidenced in 16th-century records. Greek dioceses, such as those in formerly Ottoman territories, retain crescent motifs in episcopal vestments and seals per 19th-century patriarchal decrees, linking to geographic continuity in the Aegean basin where the symbol marked maritime diocesan boundaries in charters from the onward. These uses, absent stars in primary forms, emphasize administrative legacy over symbolic innovation.

Secular and Cultural Uses

In medieval Balkan funerary art, the star and crescent motif appears frequently on stećci tombstones, large monolithic slabs erected primarily between the 12th and 16th centuries across regions of present-day , , . These carvings, often alongside rosettes or other geometric forms, served as decorative elements without uniform doctrinal significance, reflecting local artisanal traditions influenced by pre-Ottoman cultural exchanges rather than centralized religious . Archaeological analyses document the motif's recurrence in necropolises like those in Podveležje, where it adorns gabled or slab stećci, suggesting continuity from earlier astronomical or ornamental patterns in regional stonework. In 19th-century fraternal organizations derived from European Masonic traditions, such as the (founded 1872 in the United States but rooted in transatlantic lodge practices), the star and formed part of ceremonial emblems, including a suspended from a with a pendant. This design, evolving from earlier lodge insignia, symbolized fraternity and —specifically, the "claws" of the denoting organizational branches aiding children—independent of theological endorsement, as the group emphasized secular fellowship over religious affiliation. The emblem appeared in , badges, and parade standards, embodying esoteric notions of unity and moral guidance drawn from celestial imagery, without invoking Islamic or pagan rituals.

Symbolism, Interpretations, and Controversies

Astronomical, Pagan, and Pre-Islamic Meanings

The crescent in the star and crescent motif derives from the observable waxing phase of the , a prominent celestial feature in the that ancient Near Eastern societies tracked for lunisolar calendars, enabling precise timing of agricultural planting and harvests tied to monthly cycles of approximately 29.5 days. This phase's visibility, caused by the Moon's orbital geometry relative to and Sun, influenced early agrarian practices by signaling periods, as lunar rhythms correlated empirically with tidal and biological cycles essential for crop growth and navigation by sea or land. The accompanying star typically represented Venus, the brightest planet after the Moon, appearing as the morning or evening "star" due to its inferior orbit, often conjunct with the crescent Moon in predictable astronomical alignments observable without telescopes. In pagan contexts, this pairing embodied natural celestial causality—recurrent sky events shaping human iconography—rather than imposed symbolism, with Venus's eight-pointed rosette form on artifacts reflecting its radiant scintillation and periodic cycles linked to fertility and divine feminine power in pre-literate societies. In Mesopotamian pagan religion, the crescent specifically symbolized Sin (Akkadian) or Nanna (Sumerian), the moon god governing time, wisdom, and nocturnal fertility, depicted on seals and stelae from the third millennium BCE onward as a curved lunar horn signifying his control over monthly renewals. The star denoted Ishtar (Inanna in Sumerian), the Venus-associated goddess of love, war, and sexuality, whose emblem appeared conjoined with Sin's crescent on cylinder seals, boundary stones (kudurru), and temple reliefs, representing either divine invocation pairs or familial ties, as myths portrayed Ishtar as Sin's daughter. These conjoined forms served in rituals and incantations as auspicious signs, empirically rooted in sky observations that pagans interpreted as godly presences influencing earthly causation like seasonal abundance. Pre-Islamic archaeological evidence from Sumerian (c. 2100 BCE) to Babylonian periods confirms the motif's persistence in non-monotheistic cults, where it visualized celestial deities without later theological overlays, prioritizing direct empirical correlations between observed astronomy and cultic representation over speculative narratives.

Islamic Symbolism: Claims and Theological Critiques

In contemporary popular discourse, the star and crescent has been interpreted by some as symbolizing the crescent moon's role in the Islamic lunar calendar—marking the start of Ramadan and other observances—and the star as representing the Prophet Muhammad's light or the five pillars of Islam, with the crescent denoting growth in faith or progress toward divine knowledge. These attributions emerged prominently in the 20th century, often tied to Ottoman imperial iconography rather than scriptural precedent, as the symbol gained traction through flags and emblems of Muslim-majority states post-World War I. Theological critiques from within Islamic scholarship, particularly among Salafi and Wahhabi-oriented jurists, reject these interpretations as lacking any basis in the , , or practices of the and his companions, classifying the symbol's religious adoption as bid'ah (religious innovation) that introduces unsubstantiated elements into or identity. Early Islamic banners, such as those used by the at the in 624 CE, featured no icons or celestial motifs but bore plain black cloth inscribed only with the shahada (declaration of ), underscoring a deliberate avoidance of symbolic imagery to preserve tawhid () and prevent idolatrous associations. Critics invoke broader Quranic prohibitions against remnants of pre-Islamic practices, such as in 5:90, which condemns idolatrous altars and divinations as satanic defilement, arguing that venerating the star and crescent dilutes pure by echoing pagan celestial without prophetic sanction. Scholars like those affiliated with the Salafi tradition, drawing on precedents from figures such as Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328 CE) who condemned cultural accretions deviating from the (righteous predecessors), view the symbol's Ottoman-era standardization—beginning with Sultan Mehmed II's adoption in CE after conquering —as a secular heraldic holdover rather than a theological endorsement, cautioning that its proliferation risks associating with un-Islamic origins and undermining scriptural fidelity. Fatwas from institutions like IslamQA explicitly state that Muslims have no prescribed symbols akin to the , deeming the star and crescent permissible only in non-religious contexts like national flags but impermissible for mosques or religious rites to avoid innovation. This purist stance prioritizes empirical adherence to primary sources, noting the absence of any prophetic referencing the motif despite extensive narrations on ritual purity and .

Political Associations and Modern Debates

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the star and crescent emblem became entangled in ideological clashes between pan-Islamist visions of transnational unity under the and rising secular nationalisms within the empire. Sultan Abdul Hamid II (r. 1876–1909) leveraged to consolidate power amid territorial losses, invoking Islamic solidarity to counter European encroachments, though the symbol's Ottoman imperial roots predated his religious framing. The , organized under the (CUP), overthrew absolutism in the 1908 , advocating constitutional reforms and Turkic that tactically employed pan-Islamist for short-term cohesion but prioritized ethnic Turkish dominance over universal Muslim loyalty, retaining the star and crescent as a detached from caliphal . CUP conference proceedings reflected this instrumentalism, viewing the emblem as a marker of imperial continuity amid modernization drives, subordinating religious symbolism to political . Post-World War I decolonization intensified disputes over the symbol's legitimacy, pitting nationalist state-building against purist Islamic revivalism. In successor states emerging from Ottoman collapse, secular elites adopted the star and crescent to evoke historical prestige and unify diverse populations under national banners, as seen in early Republican Turkey's retention of the motif despite Atatürk's 1924 abolition of the caliphate, framing it as ethnic-Turkic heritage rather than divine mandate. This secular appropriation clashed with pan-Islamist manifestos seeking supranational revival, where the emblem symbolized lost caliphal glory but faced scrutiny for its pre-Islamic provenance—traced to Parthian, Sasanian, and Byzantine usages—undermining claims of inherent monotheistic purity. Wahhabi-influenced doctrines in Saudi Arabia explicitly rejected such icons as bid'ah (religious innovations), favoring the shahada alone on the national flag since its 1934 standardization, reflecting a causal prioritization of doctrinal exclusivity over emblematic nostalgia in consolidating Al Saud power. Salafi purists echoed this, decrying the symbol's pagan astronomical ties as antithetical to tawhid (strict monotheism), a stance amplified in post-colonial fatwas and treatises dismissing Ottoman legacies as corrupt accretions. Modern political debates highlight power dynamics in symbol manipulation, with right-leaning analysts critiquing its elevation in Islamist movements as opportunistic veiling of expansionist agendas despite acknowledged non-Islamic origins. Groups invoking pan-Islamic unity, such as certain post-Soviet Salafi-jihadist networks, repurpose the star and crescent alongside motifs to rally transnational support, yet this fusion reveals tactical alliances over theological rigor, as purists historically shunned it for evoking polytheistic lunar cults. Conservative critiques, drawing on declassified on emblem use in , argue such glorification sustains narratives of civilizational clash, prioritizing mobilization against Western over internal reform, with the symbol's endurance signaling elite control via cultural inertia rather than . These tensions persist in ideological manifestos, where rejection by Saudi-led coalitions underscores a strategic purge of "Ottoman relics" to assert , contrasting with nationalists' retention for state legitimacy.

Contemporary Global Usage

National Flags and State Symbols

The star and crescent appears on the national flags of several sovereign states, predominantly those emerging from Ottoman or post-colonial contexts in Muslim-majority regions, where it was incorporated via official decrees or constitutional acts to signify and continuity with imperial precedents. This motif's state-level adoption reflects standardized templates from the Ottoman Empire's 1844 national flag, rather than decentralized religious initiatives, as evidenced by legislative records tying designs to timelines or reforms. Turkey's , featuring a white and on a field, evolved from the Ottoman standardized as the empire's in 1844 under Abdülmecid I, and was codified for the Republic by Law No. 299 on May 29, 1936. Pakistan's green field with a white vertical stripe, , and was approved by the on August 11, 1947, days before independence from British India, with the design attributed to Ameer-ud-din Kidwai. Algeria's vertical green-and-white bands with a central and were officially raised on July 3, 1962, coinciding with independence from , adapting earlier liberation banners into a state emblem via provisional government decree. Tunisia's field with a white disk enclosing a and traces to the 1831 Husainid Beylik under Ottoman influence, reaffirmed as the national standard post-1956 independence through constitutional continuity. Variations include Malaysia's adoption on September 26, 1950 (updated 1963), with a 14-pointed star and yellow crescent on 14 red-and-white stripes denoting federal states and , per Federal Legislative Council approval. Azerbaijan's horizontal blue-red-green tricolor with an eight-pointed white star and crescent in the center was readopted on February 5, 1991, by the following Soviet dissolution, reviving the 1918 design. These implementations demonstrate the symbol's transmission as a pre-existing imperial device, selected by founding elites for administrative and identificatory purposes in foundational documents.

Religious and Organizational Emblems

The star and crescent motif adorns the finials of minarets and domes on numerous mosques and madrasas in and , a practice inherited from Ottoman architectural conventions established after the 15th-century conquest of , where the symbols were integrated into Islamic religious structures as markers of sovereignty and cultural continuity. This usage persisted into the Republican era in and post-1947 independence in , appearing on educational institutions like madrasas to evoke communal identity without explicit doctrinal endorsement. In contrast, such ornamentation remains absent from religious buildings in , where Salafi scholars and state policy reject the star and crescent as innovations () lacking attestation in the , , or early caliphal practices, favoring unadorned designs to emphasize (divine unity) over symbolic representations. This theological critique, articulated by figures like Ibn Baz, views the symbols' pre-Islamic pagan associations—linking the crescent to moon deities like and the star to —as incompatible with , leading to their exclusion from the Grand in and other Arabian sites. Organizationally, the Red Crescent emblem—originating in the Ottoman Hilal-i Ahmer Society founded on March 11, 1868, and first deployed during the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War—functions as a charter-protected humanitarian insignia in Muslim-majority societies, denoting neutrality and aid under the 1864 Geneva Convention framework ratified by the Ottomans in 1865. While the core emblem is a red crescent on white, it draws from Ottoman star-and-crescent heraldry, appearing in tandem in some national variants and diaspora artifacts to signal Islamic affiliation in relief efforts, distinct from state military uses. In 20th-century diaspora settings, ummah-focused associations among immigrant communities in and incorporated the star and crescent into charters and , as seen in early constructions and society banners from the 1920s onward, symbolizing trans-national amid minority status without formal religious sanction. This adoption reflects practical cultural adaptation rather than theological imperative, often critiqued by purist scholars for perpetuating Ottoman secular legacies over scriptural purity.

Sports, Commercial, and Miscellaneous Applications

Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü, founded on May 3, 1907, in Istanbul, Turkey, features a star and crescent emblem designed in 1910 by club member Topuz Hikmet, drawing from Ottoman-era motifs as a nod to national heritage in its sports branding. Drogheda United F.C., an Irish club established in 1919, incorporates the star and crescent in its crest to commemorate Ottoman Empire aid—£1,000 and ships of food—provided during Ireland's Great Famine of 1845–1852, transforming the symbol into a localized emblem of historical gratitude detached from its astronomical or imperial roots. These applications illustrate the motif's adaptation in club identities for fan loyalty and regional identity, often stylized in modern logos without reference to pre-modern symbolism. In commercial contexts, the star and crescent appears in certification logos, where it visually cues Islamic permissibility for food and products, as seen in vector designs and branding guidelines associating the elements with trust in Muslim consumer markets. Such uses commodify the as a for market compliance, with trademarks filed for seals incorporating the motif to appeal to global buyers, prioritizing recognizability over theological depth. Miscellaneous applications include widespread jewelry production, where crescent moon and star pendants are mass-marketed as celestial fashion accessories on platforms like Amazon, with thousands of and gold variants sold annually for everyday wear, emphasizing aesthetic appeal over cultural or religious connotations. In niche areas like astronomy enthusiast merchandise, the surfaces in diluted forms on apparel and accessories, evoking lunar phases and stellar observation without invoking historical precedents, as evidenced by its generic use in cosmic-themed consumer goods. These peripheral employments highlight the motif's evolution into a versatile graphic element, trademarked and reproduced for profit in sectors far removed from its ancient associations.

References

  1. https://www.labrujulaverde.com/en/2025/10/crescent-moon-and-star-the-islamic-symbols-that-actually-date-back-to-ancient-mesopotamia/
  2. https://www.academia.edu/34684319/The_Star_and_Crescent_on_Ancient_Coins
  3. https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2247&context=ocj
  4. https://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/crescent1.htm
  5. https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/10926/what-was-the-reason-for-the-ottoman-empire-to-adopt-the-crescent-moon-as-its-fla
  6. https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/rel-islc.html
  7. https://www.academia.edu/127680759/The_Symbol_of_the_Crescent_Moon_with_a_Star_on_Ancient_and_Medieval_Coins
  8. https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/amgg/listofdeities/nannasuen/
  9. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/725771
  10. https://worldhistoryedu.com/star-of-ishtar/
  11. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1882-0522-1800
  12. https://anetoday.org/dijk-coombes-standards-mesopotamia/
  13. https://coinweek.com/star-crescent-ancient-coins/
  14. https://www.coinbooks.org/v20/esylum_v20n40a29.html
  15. https://oxfordre.com/classics/DocumentId/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1206
  16. https://www.academia.edu/88332208/The_land_of_the_Sun_and_the_Moon_An_interpretation_of_the_emblem_on_Pontic_royal_coins
  17. https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstreams/98b80f60-5c73-4ec2-ab43-cb60c7152430/download
  18. https://www.terranumis.com/2025/08/30/vardanes-i-parthian-silver-drachm-38-46-ad-star-crescent-obverse-with-seated-archer-reverse/
  19. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/art-in-iran-v-sasanian/
  20. https://historymystery.quora.com/https-ancienthistory-quora-com-Why-was-there-always-a-symbol-of-star-and-crescent-on-Sassanian-and-Parthian-coins-1
  21. https://www.polatkaya.net/Crescent_Star.htm
  22. https://japanesemythology.wordpress.com/slavic-mythology-hors-dazbog-solar-deity-and-wolf-deity-or-lame-wolf-shepherdwho-rules-the-underworld/notes-early-turkic-mythology-and-shamanism/
  23. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/1528
  24. https://www.learnreligions.com/the-crescent-moon-a-symbol-of-islam-2004351
  25. https://sailemagazine.com/2021/04/the-hidden-messages-in-early-islamic-coins/
  26. https://www.vcoins.com/en/stores/civitas_galleries/33/product/arabsasanian_umayyad_caliphate_umar_ibn_ubayd_allah_ah6772_686691_ad_drachm_bishapur_mint_good_vf/1460545/Default.aspx
  27. https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/coins/
  28. https://www.theguardian.com/notesandqueries/query/0%2C5753%2C-1411%2C00.html
  29. https://menasymbolism.wordpress.com/2019/04/10/post-classical-star-and-crescent/
  30. https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/ottomans-flags-banners-for-battles-24913
  31. https://greekcitytimes.com/2025/08/16/the-long-journey-of-the-crescent-and-star-from-ancient-greece-to-islam/
  32. https://tureng.com/en/turkish-english/ay%20y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z
  33. https://www.quora.com/How-did-Islam-a-fiercely-monotheistic-religion-adopt-the-crescent-moon-and-star-symbol-which-was-used-by-many-ancient-polytheistic-cultures-Wouldnt-this-symbol-be-anathema-to-Islam-since-it-represents-pagan-worship
  34. https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/khanate-of-khiva.html
  35. https://antonpihl.wordpress.com/2017/07/18/muslim-bosnia/
  36. https://heraldicjewelry.com/blogs/heraldic-times/heraldry-and-the-crusades-part-5-the-seals-of-richard-i
  37. https://heraldictimes.wordpress.com/2010/11/21/heraldry-and-the-crusades-part-5-the-seals-of-richard-i/
  38. http://www.hubert-herald.nl/UKEngland1154.htm
  39. https://www.portsmouth.gov.uk/services/council-and-democracy/your-city/portsmouths-coat-of-arms/
  40. https://historyinportsmouth.co.uk/events/coatofarms.htm
  41. https://library.smotj.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Templar-Seals.pdf
  42. https://heraldicjewelry.com/blogs/heraldic-times/heraldry-and-the-crusades-part-6
  43. https://www.quora.com/Why-is-the-Ottoman-crescent-with-a-star-the-coat-of-arms-of-the-German-city-of-Halle
  44. https://catalog.obitel-minsk.com/blog/2018/05/the-origins-of-orthodox-crosses-wi
  45. https://www.gw2ru.com/arts/2605-crescent-orthodox-christian-cross
  46. http://img-cache.oppcdn.com/fixed/69630/assets/B_l_I5WaycsRlGXv.pdf
  47. https://fezmuseum.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/shrinelogos.pdf
  48. https://www.alcazarshriners.com/shrine-history.html
  49. https://themasonslady.com/2014/08/05/naviagting-masonic-emblems-part-ii/
  50. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331986517_Visualizing_the_Moon_in_the_Ancient_Near_East
  51. https://syriacpress.com/blog/2022/02/18/the-moon-god-sin/
  52. https://islam.stackexchange.com/questions/1245/why-is-the-crescent-moon-and-star-being-used-as-the-symbol-of-islam-by-some-mu
  53. https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-meaning-of-the-quarter-moon-and-star-symbols-in-Islam
  54. https://islamreigns.wordpress.com/2016/03/30/the-star-and-crescent-symbol-has-nothing-to-do-with-islam/
  55. https://www.islamtomorrow.com/articles/fatwah/crescent_symbol.asp
  56. http://soerenkern.com/pdfs/islam/PoliticizationOfIslamKarpat.pdf
  57. https://www.sav.sk/journals/uploads/031212022_Sorby_Jr.pdf
  58. https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/HIST351-8.3.1-Young-Turks.pdf
  59. https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%253A3203762/download
  60. https://openjournals.ugent.be/snm/article/id/89003/download/pdf/
  61. https://storage1.snappages.site/TWFM45/assets/files/4Origin-of-the-Islamic-Crescent-and-Star-15.pdf
  62. https://www.learnreligions.com/wahhabism-and-wahhabi-islam-250235
  63. https://freepresskashmir.news/2017/06/25/how-did-the-crescent-moon-and-star-become-associated-with-the-faith-of-islam/
  64. https://smallwarsjournal.com/2025/03/31/hammer-sickle-star-crescent/
  65. https://millichronicle.com/2025/04/how-the-crescent-and-star-hijacked-muslim-identity.html
  66. https://www.reviewofreligions.org/25422/wahhabism-and-the-rise-of-the-saudis-the-persecuted-become-the-persecutors/
  67. https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/countries-with-moon-and-stars-flags
  68. https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/tr.html
  69. https://en.turkey-invest.net/servicesblog/turkish-flag-%2528history---colors---uses---legends%2529
  70. https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/turkey/flag
  71. https://www.diy.org/article/flag_of_pakistan
  72. https://worldcountryflags.com/flag-of-pakistan/
  73. https://www.flags.com/algeria-flag/
  74. https://www.worldatlas.com/flags/algeria
  75. https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-Tunisia
  76. https://www.worldatlas.com/flags/tunisia
  77. https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/malaysia/flag
  78. https://www.malaysia.gov.my/portal/content/138
  79. https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-Azerbaijan
  80. https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/az.html
  81. http://winkatturkey.com/en/2014/02/20/el-alem-el-simbolo-de-la-media-luna-que-corona-las-mezquitas/
  82. https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/islamic-crescent-and-star-on-mosque.html
  83. https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/red-crescent-hilal-i-ahmer/
  84. https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/S0020860400074635a.pdf
  85. https://www.learnreligions.com/international-flags-with-a-crescent-moon-symbol-2004484
  86. https://www.fenerbahce.org/club/history
  87. https://1000logos.net/fenerbahce-logo/
  88. https://www.turkiyetoday.com/culture/irish-drogheda-uniteds-crest-features-a-crescent-star-heres-why-3203812
  89. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365863431_THE_RECOGNITION_OF_ISLAMIC_INFLUENCE_FOR_HALAL_LOGO_A_REVIEW
  90. https://stock.adobe.com/images/halal-in-arabic-calligraphy-sign-logo-the-words-of-muslim-product-crescent-star-symbol-vector-illustration/302105605
  91. https://www.amazon.com/Crescent-Moon-Stars/s?k=Crescent%2BMoon%2Band%2BStars
  92. https://bedouinsilver.com/crescent-moon-and-star-symbolism/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
Contribute something
User Avatar
No comments yet.