Hubbry Logo
Biblical MagiBiblical MagiMain
Open search
Biblical Magi
Community hub
Biblical Magi
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Biblical Magi
Biblical Magi
Biblical Magi
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
The Three Magi, Byzantine mosaic, c. 565, Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy (restored during the 19th century). As here, Byzantine art usually depicts the Magi in Persian clothing, which includes breeches, capes, and Phrygian caps.

In Christianity, the Biblical Magi[a] (/ˈmeɪdʒaɪ/ MAY-jy or /ˈmædʒaɪ/ MAJ-eye;[1] singular: magus), also known as the Three Wise Men, Three Kings, and Three Magi,[b] are distinguished foreigners who visit Jesus after his birth, bearing gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh in homage to him.[2] In Western Christianity, they are commemorated on the feast day of Epiphany—sometimes called "Three Kings Day"—and commonly appear in the nativity celebrations of Christmas. In Eastern Christianity, they are commemorated on Christmas day.[3]

The Magi appear solely in the Gospel of Matthew, which states that they came "from the east" (Greek: ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν, romanized: apo anatolōn) to worship the "one who has been born king of the Jews".[4] Their names, origins, appearances, and exact number are unmentioned and derive from the inferences or traditions of later Christians.[5] In Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodox Christianity, they are usually assumed to have been three in number, corresponding with each gift;[3][6] in Syriac Christianity, they often number twelve.[7] Likewise, the Magi's social status is never stated: although some biblical translations describe them as astrologers, they were increasingly identified as kings by at least the third century,[2] which conformed with Christian interpretations of Old Testament prophecies that the messiah would be worshipped by kings.[8][9]

The mystery of the Magi's identities and background, combined with their theological significance, has made them prominent figures in the Christian tradition; they are venerated as saints or even martyrs in many Christian communities, and are the subject of numerous artworks, legends, and customs. Both secular and Christian observers have noted that the Magi popularly serve as a means of expressing various ideas, symbols, and themes.[10][11][12] Many scholars regard the Magi as legendary rather than historical figures.[13]

Biblical account

[edit]
Biblical Magi stained glass window, c. 1896, at the Church of the Good Shepherd (Rosemont, Pennsylvania), showing the Three Magi with Joseph, Mary, and Jesus.

Traditional nativity scenes depict three "wise men" visiting the infant Jesus on the night of his birth, in a manger accompanied by the shepherds and angels, but this should be understood as an artistic convention allowing the two separate scenes of the Adoration of the Shepherds on the birth night and the later Adoration of the Magi to be combined for convenience.[14] The single biblical account in Matthew 2 simply presents an event at an unspecified point after Jesus's birth in which an unnumbered party of unnamed "wise men" (μάγοι, mágoi) visits him in a house (οἰκίαν, oikian), not a stable.[15] The New Revised Standard Version of Matthew 2:1–12 describes the visit of the Magi in this manner:

In the time of King Herod, after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, asking, "Where is the child who has been born king of the Jews? For we observed his star at its rising, and have come to pay him homage."[15] When King Herod heard this, he was frightened and all Jerusalem with him; and calling together all the chief priests and scribes of the people, he inquired of them where the Messiah was to be born. They told him, "In Bethlehem of Judea; for so it has been written by the prophet: 'And you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by no means least among the rulers of Judah; for from you shall come a ruler who is to shepherd my people Israel.'" Then Herod secretly called for the wise men and learned from them the exact time when the star had appeared. Then he sent them to Bethlehem, saying, "Go and search diligently for the child; and when you have found him, bring me word so that I may also go and pay him homage." When they had heard the king, they set out; and there, ahead of them, went the star that they had seen at its rising, until it stopped over the place where the child was. When they saw that the star had stopped, they were overwhelmed with joy. On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own country by another path.

The text specifies no interval between the birth and the visit, and artistic depictions and the closeness of the traditional dates of December 25 and January 6 encourage the popular assumption that the visit took place the same winter as the birth, but later traditions varied, with the visit taken as occurring up to two winters later. This maximum interval explained Herod's command at Matthew 2:16–18 that the Massacre of the Innocents included boys up to two years old. Some more recent commentators, not tied to the traditional feast days, suggest a variety of intervals.[16]

The wise men are mentioned twice shortly thereafter in verse 16, in reference to their avoidance of Herod after seeing Jesus, and what Herod had learned from their earlier meeting. The star which they followed has traditionally become known as the Star of Bethlehem.[17][18]

Description

[edit]
Incised third century A.D. sarcophagus slab depicts the Adoration of the Magi, from the Catacombs of Rome – translated as, "Severa, may you live in God", Severa being the woman buried in the sarcophagus and likely the figure to the left of the inscription.

The Magi are popularly referred to as wise men and kings. The word magi is the plural of Latin magus, borrowed from Greek μάγος (magos),[19] as used in the original Greek text of the Gospel of Matthew (in the plural: μάγοι, magoi). The Greek magos itself is derived from Old Persian maguŝ, which in turn originated from the Avestan magâunô, referring to the Iranian priestly caste of Zoroastrianism.[20][21] Within this tradition, priests paid particular attention to the stars and gained an international reputation for astrology,[22] which was at that time highly regarded as a science.[5] Their religious practices and astrological abilities caused derivatives of the term Magi to be applied to the occult in general and led to the English term magic.

The King James Version translates "magi" as wise men; the same translation is applied to the wise men led by Daniel of earlier Hebrew Scriptures (Daniel 2:48). The same word is given as sorcerer and sorcery when describing "Elymas the sorcerer" in Acts 13:6–11, and Simon Magus, considered a heretic by the early Church, in Acts 8:9–13. Several translations refer to the men outright as astrologers at Matthew Chapter 2, including New English Bible (1961); The New Testament in Modern English (J.B.Phillips, 1972); Twentieth Century New Testament (1904 revised edition); Amplified Bible (1958, New Testament); An American Translation (1935, Goodspeed); and The Living Bible (K. Taylor, 1962, New Testament).

Although the Magi are commonly referred to as "kings", there is nothing in the Gospel of Matthew that implies they were rulers of any kind. The identification of the Magi as kings is linked to Old Testament prophecies that describe the Messiah being worshipped by kings in Isaiah 60:3, Psalm 68:29, and Psalm 72:10, which reads, "Yea, all kings shall fall down before him: all nations serve him."[23][24][25] Early readers reinterpreted Matthew in light of these prophecies and elevated the Magi to kings, which became widely accepted by at least 500 A.D.[26] Later Christian interpretation stressed the adoration of the Magi and shepherds as the first recognition by humans of Christ as the Redeemer. However, the Protestant reformer John Calvin was vehemently opposed to referring to the Magi as kings, writing: "But the most ridiculous contrivance of the Papists on this subject is, that those men were kings... Beyond all doubt, they have been stupefied by a righteous judgment of God, that all might laugh at [their] gross ignorance."[27][28]

Identities and background

[edit]
The three Magi (named Balthazar, Caspar, and Melchior), from Herrad of Landsberg's Hortus deliciarum (12th century)

The names and origins of the Magi are never given in scripture, but have been provided by various traditions and legends.[29]

Among Western Christians, the earliest and most common names are:

These names first appear in an eighth-century religious chronicle, Excerpta Latina Barbari, which is a Latin translation of a lost Greek manuscript probably composed in Alexandria roughly two centuries earlier.[31] Another eighth century text, Collectanea et Flores, which was likewise a Latin translation from an original Greek account, continues the tradition of three kings and their names and gives additional details.[36][37]

One candidate for the origin of the name Caspar appears in the apocryphal Acts of Thomas, which gives the account of Thomas the Apostle's visit to the Indo-Parthian King Gondophares I (AD 21– c. 47), also known as Gudapharasa, from which "Caspar" might derive as corruption of "Gaspar". Gondophares had declared independence from the Arsacids and ruled a kingdom spanning present-day Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. According to Ernst Herzfeld, his name is perpetuated in the name of the Afghan city Kandahar, which he is said to have founded under the name Gundopharron.[38]

Within Eastern Christianity, the Magi have varied names. Among Syrian Christians, they are Larvandad, Gushnasaph, and Hormisdas,[39] which are approximations of typical Zoroastrian names, in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, they are Hor, Karsudan, and Basanater, while Armenian Catholics have Kagpha, Badadakharida and Badadilma.[40][41]

The list given by Michael the Syrian[42] in his chronicle has these eleven names:

  • Dahdnadur, son of Artaban
  • Waštaph, son of Gudpir
  • Aršak, son of Mahduq
  • Zerwand, son of Warudud
  • Ariwah, son of Khosrow
  • Arṭaḥšišt, son of Ḥōlīṭ
  • Eštanbuzan, son of Šišrawan
  • Mahduq, son of Hawahm
  • Aḥšireš, son of Ṣaḥban
  • Ṣardanaḥ, son of Baladan
  • Marduk, son of Bīl

These are all Iranian Zoroastrian names, or pseudo-Iranian Zoroastrian names. Waštaph certainly reflects Vishtaspa, the name of the first king to have converted to Zoroastrianism, but also a common Zoroastrian name at the time. Arṭaḥšišt is an archaic form of the common name Ardeshir. Marduk should be a variant of mard "man" with the suffix -ōk. This fits with the fact that, in Michael's Chronicle, "mage" in other parts simply means "Zoroastrian", and with the idea that these mage kings should simply be Zoroastrian officials, coming to recognise Jesus as a holy figure.

Many Chinese Christians believe that one of the magi came from China.[43]

Country of origin and journey

[edit]
The Magi Journeying by James Tissot, c. 1890, Brooklyn Museum, New York City

The phrase "from the east" (ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν, apo anatolon), more literally "from the rising [of the sun]", is the only information Matthew provides about the region from which they came. The Parthian Empire, centered in Iran (Persia), stretched from eastern Syria to the fringes of India. Though the empire was tolerant of other religions, its dominant religion was Zoroastrianism, with its priestly magos class.[44]

Although Matthew's account does not explicitly cite the motivation for their journey (other than seeing the star in the east, which they took to be the star of the King of the Jews), the apocryphal Syriac Infancy Gospel states in its third chapter that they were pursuing a prophecy from their prophet, Zoradascht (Zoroaster).[45]

There is an Armenian tradition identifying the "Magi of Bethlehem" as Balthasar of Arabia, Melchior of Persia, and Caspar of India.[46][failed verification] Historian John of Hildesheim relates a tradition in the ancient Silk Road city of Taxila (in present-day Punjab, Pakistan) that one of the Magi passed through the city on the way to Bethlehem.[47]

Sebastian Brock, a historian of Christianity, has said: "It was no doubt among converts from Zoroastrianism that ... certain legends were developed around the Magi of the Gospels."[48][49] And Anders Hultgård concluded that the Gospel story of the Magi was influenced by an Iranian legend concerning magi and a star, which was connected with Persian beliefs in the rise of a star predicting the birth of a ruler and with myths describing the manifestation of a divine figure in fire and light.[50]

The Three Wise Kings, Catalan Atlas, 1375, fol. V: "This province is called Tarshish, from which came the Three Wise Kings, and they came to Bethlehem in Judaea with their gifts and worshipped Jesus Christ, and they are entombed in the city of Cologne two days journey from Bruges."

A model for the homage of the Magi might have been provided, it has been suggested, by the journey to Rome of King Tiridates I of Armenia, with his magi, to pay homage to the Emperor Nero, which took place in AD 66, a few years before the date assigned to the composition of the Gospel of Matthew.[51][52]

There was a tradition that the Central Asian Naimans and their Christian relatives, the Keraites, were descended from the biblical Magi.[53] This heritage passed to the Mongol dynasty of Genghis Khan when Sorghaghtani, niece of the Keraite ruler Toghrul, married Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis, and became the mother of Möngke Khan and his younger brother and successor, Kublai Khan. Toghrul became identified with the legendary Central Asian Christian king Prester John, whose Mongol descendants were sought as allies against the Muslims by contemporary European monarchs and popes.[54] Sempad the Constable, elder brother of King Hetoum I of Cilician Armenia, visited the Mongol court in Karakorum in 1247–1250 and in 1254. He wrote a letter to Henry I King of Cyprus and Queen Stephanie (Sempad's sister) from Samarkand in 1243, in which he said: "Tanchat [Tangut, or Western Xia], which is the land from whence came the Three Kings to Bethlehem to worship the Lord Jesus which was born. And know that the power of Christ has been, and is, so great, that the people of that land are Christians; and the whole land of Chata [Khitai, or Kara-Khitai] believes those Three Kings. I have myself been in their churches and have seen pictures of Jesus Christ and the Three Kings, one offering gold, the second frankincense, and the third myrrh. And it is through those Three Kings that they believe in Christ, and that the Chan and his people have now become Christians."[55] The legendary Christian ruler of Central Asia Prester John was reportedly a descendant of one of the Magi.[56]

In her four volumes of visions of the life of Christ, Anne Catherine Emmerich says that the Magi came from the border between Chaldea and Elam, mentioning Ur, "Mozian" (Iraq's Maysan Province, anciently known as Mesene), "Sikdor" (Shushtar, near Susa), and a "city, whose name sounded to me something like Acajaja" (Aghajari), as well as other cities farther east.[57]

Later interpretations

[edit]
Caspar by Jan van Bijlert. Oil on panel. c. 1640 – c. 1650

Apart from their names, the three Magi developed distinct characteristics in Christian tradition, so that between them they represented the three ages of (adult) man, three geographical and cultural areas, and sometimes other concepts. In one tradition, reflected in art by at least the 14th century—for example, in the Arena Chapel by Giotto in 1305—Caspar is old, normally with a white beard, and gives the gold; he is "King of Tarsus, land of merchants" on the Mediterranean coast of modern Turkey, and is first in line to kneel to Christ. Melchior is middle-aged, giving frankincense from Arabia, and Balthazar is a young man, very often and increasingly black-skinned, with myrrh from Saba (modern southern Yemen). Their ages were often given as 60, 40 and 20 respectively, and their geographical origins were rather variable, with Balthazar increasingly coming from Aksum or other parts of Africa, and being represented accordingly.[58]

Balthazar's blackness has been the subject of considerable recent scholarly attention; in art, it is found mostly in northern Europe, beginning from the 12th century, and becoming very common in the north by the 15th.[59] The subject of which king is which and who brought which gift is not without some variation depending on the tradition. The gift of gold is sometimes associated with Melchior as well,[60] and in some traditions Melchior is the oldest of the three Magi.[12]

Gestures of respect

[edit]

The Magi are described as "falling down", "kneeling", or "bowing" in the worship of Jesus.[61] This gesture, together with Luke's birth narrative, had an important effect on Christian religious practices.[citation needed] They were indicative of great respect, and typically used when venerating a king. While prostration is now rarely practised in the West, it is still relatively common in the Eastern Churches, especially during Lent. Kneeling has remained an important element of Christian worship to this day.

Gifts of the Magi

[edit]
"Gifts of the Magi" redirects here. For the short story, see The Gift of the Magi.
"Gold, frankincense, and myrrh" redirects here. For the film, see Gold, Frankincense and Myrrh.
Gold
Frankincense
Myrrh
The three gifts of the magi, left to right: gold, frankincense and myrrh

Three gifts are explicitly identified in Matthew: gold, frankincense and myrrh; in Koine Greek, these are chrysós (χρυσός), líbanos (λίβανος) and smýrna (σμύρνα). There are various theories and interpretations of the meaning and symbolism of the gifts, particularly with respect to frankincense and myrrh.

The theories generally break down into two groups:

  1. All three gifts are ordinary offerings and gifts given to a king. Myrrh being commonly used as an anointing oil, frankincense as a perfume, and gold as a valuable.
  2. The three gifts had a spiritual meaning: gold as a symbol of kingship on earth, frankincense (an incense) as a symbol of deity, and myrrh (an embalming oil) as a symbol of death.
    *This dates back to Origen in Contra Celsum: "gold, as to a king; myrrh, as to one who was mortal; and incense, as to a God."[62]
    *These interpretations are alluded to in the verses of the popular carol "We Three Kings" in which the magi describe their gifts. The last verse includes a summary of the interpretation: "Glorious now behold Him arise/King and God and sacrifice."
    *Sometimes this is described more generally as gold symbolising virtue, frankincense symbolising prayer, and myrrh symbolising suffering.
Adoración de los Reyes Magos by El Greco, 1568 (Museo Soumaya, Mexico City)

Frankincense and myrrh were burned during rituals among Egyptian, Greek and Roman societies. Ancient Egyptians used myrrh to embalm corpses and Romans burned it as a type of incense at funeral pyres.[63] Myrrh was used as an embalming ointment and as a penitential incense in funerals and cremations until the 15th century. The "holy oil" traditionally used by the Eastern Orthodox Church for performing the sacraments of chrismation and unction is traditionally scented with myrrh, and receiving either of these sacraments is commonly referred to as "receiving the myrrh". The picture of the Magi on the 7th-century Franks Casket shows the third visitor – he who brings myrrh – with a valknut over his back, a pagan symbol referring to Death.[64]

It has been suggested by scholars that the "gifts" were medicinal rather than precious material for tribute.[65][66][67]

The Syrian King Seleucus I Nicator is recorded to have offered gold, frankincense and myrrh (among other items) to Apollo in his temple at Didyma near Miletus in 288/7 BC,[68] and this may have been the precedent for the mention of these three gifts in Gospel of Matthew (2:11). It was these three gifts, it is thought, which were the chief cause for the number of the Magi becoming fixed eventually at three.[69]

This episode can be linked to Isaiah 60 and to Psalm 72, which report gifts being given by kings, and this has played a central role in the perception of the Magi as kings, rather than as astronomer-priests. In a hymn of the late 4th-century Hispanic poet Prudentius, the three gifts have already gained their medieval interpretation as prophetic emblems of Jesus' identity, familiar in the carol "We Three Kings" by John Henry Hopkins, Jr., 1857.

John Chrysostom suggested that the gifts were fit to be given not just to a king but to God, and contrasted them with the Jews' traditional offerings of sheep and calves, and accordingly Chrysostom asserts that the Magi worshiped Jesus as God.

What subsequently happened to these gifts is never mentioned in the scripture, but several traditions have developed.[70] One story has the gold being stolen by the two thieves who were later crucified alongside Jesus. Another tale has it being entrusted to and then misappropriated by Judas. One tradition suggests that Joseph and Mary used the gold to finance their travels when they fled Bethlehem after an angel had warned, in a dream, about King Herod's plan to kill Jesus. And another story proposes the theory that the myrrh given to them at Jesus' birth was used to anoint Jesus' body after his crucifixion.

There was a 15th-century golden case purportedly containing the Gift of the Magi housed in the Monastery of St. Paul of Mount Athos. It was donated to the monastery in the 15th century by Mara Branković, daughter of the King of Serbia Đurađ Branković, wife to the Ottoman Sultan Murat II and godmother to Mehmet II the Conqueror (of Constantinople). After the Athens earthquake of September 7, 1999, they were temporarily displayed in Athens to strengthen faith and raise money for earthquake victims. The relics were displayed in Ukraine and Belarus in Christmas of 2014, and thus left Greece for the first time since the 15th century.[71]

According to the book The Travels of Marco Polo, gold symbolises the power over the material world as a king on earth, frankincense symbolises the power over the spiritual world as a deity, and myrrh symbolises the healing power over death.

Religious significance and traditions

[edit]
See also: Mystery play

Holidays celebrating the arrival of the Magi traditionally recognise a distinction between the date of their arrival and the date of Jesus' birth. The account given in the Gospel of Matthew does not state that they were present on the night of the birth; in the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary remain in Bethlehem until it is time for Jesus' dedication in Jerusalem, after which they return to their home in Nazareth.

The visit of the Magi is commemorated in most Western Christian churches separately from Christmas. The visit of the Magi is part of the Epiphany on 6 January, which concludes the Twelve Days of Christmas; on that date the Magi are also celebrated as saints.

The Eastern Orthodox celebrate the visit of the Magi on the same date as their Christmas, which is either 25 December or 7 January, depending on if they follow the Revised Julian calendar or the Julian calendar.[3][72]

One story in Syriac Christianity in the era of the late Roman Empire and early post-Islamic conquest period, the Revelation of the Magi, indicates that the Magi arrived in April (rather than January). It also implies the Magi arrived before Jesus's birth, while Mary was still pregnant, yet nevertheless a celestial child of the transformed Star of Bethlehem was able to commission them, suggesting that Jesus could be in multiple places at once.[73][74]

The Quran does not contain Matthew's episode of the Magi. However, the Persian Muslim encyclopedist al-Tabari, writing in the ninth century, gives the familiar symbolism of the gifts of the Magi, citing the late seventh century Persian-Yemenite writer Wahb ibn Munabbih.[75]

Spanish and Hispanic customs

[edit]
The Three Wise Men receiving children at a shopping mall in Spain. Letters with gift requests are left in the letterbox on the left-hand side.

In much of the Spanish-speaking world, the Three Kings (Los Reyes Magos de Oriente, Los Tres Reyes Magos, or simply Los Reyes Magos) receive letters from children and so bring them gifts on the morning of 6 January. In Spain, each one of the Magi is supposed to represent a different continent: Europe (Melchior), Asia (Caspar) and Africa (Balthasar). According to the tradition, the Magi come from the Orient on their camels to visit the houses of all the children, much like Sinterklaas and Santa Claus with his reindeer elsewhere.

Almost every Spanish city or town organises cabalgatas in the evening of 5 January, in which the kings and their pages parade and throw sweets to the children (and parents) in attendance. The cavalcade of the three kings in Alcoy claims to be the longest-running in the world, having started in 1886. The Mystery Play of the Three Magic Kings is also presented on Epiphany Eve. There is also a "Roscón" (Spain) or "Rosca de Reyes" (Mexico).

In Spain, due to the lack of a black population until recently, the role of Balthazar has often been played by an actor in blackface; this practice has been criticised in the 21st century.[76]

Not only in Spain, but also in Argentina, Mexico, Paraguay, and Uruguay, there is a long tradition of children receiving presents by the three Reyes Magos on the night of 5 January (Epiphany Eve) or on the morning of 6 January (Epiphany day or Día de Reyes), because it is believed that this is the day in which the Magi arrived bearing gifts for the Christ child. In most Latin American countries children also cut grass or greenery on 5 January and fill a box or their shoes with the cuttings for the Kings' camels. They then place the box or their shoes under their bed or beside the Christmas tree. On Epiphany morning the children will find the grass gone from their shoes or box and replaced with candy and other small, sweet treats.

In Spain and most Latin American countries, which are predominantly Roman Catholic, the Christmas Season starts on 8 December (day of the Immaculate Conception, also known as day of the Virgin Mary) and ends with the last hour of 6 January, Día de Reyes. In the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico, however, there are eight more days of celebration called las octavitas (the little eight days). According to the Catholic Church, the full Christmas Season is from 25 December to Candlemas on 2 February.

In the Philippines, beliefs concerning the Three Kings (Filipino: Tatlóng Haring Mago, lit. "Three Magi Kings"; shortened to Tatlóng Harì or Spanish Tres Reyes) follows Hispanic influence, with the Feast of the Epiphany considered by many Filipinos as the traditional end of their Christmas season. The tradition of the Three Kings' cabalgata is today done only in some areas, such as the old city of Intramuros in Manila, and the island of Marinduque. Another dying custom is children leaving shoes out on Epiphany Eve, so that they may receive sweets and money from the Three Kings. With the arrival of American culture in the early 20th century, the Three Kings as gift-givers have been largely replaced in urban areas by Santa Claus, and they only survive in the greeting "Happy Three Kings!" and the surname Tatlóngharì. The Three Kings are enshrined as patron saints in the National Shrine of Virgen La Divina Pastora in Gapan, Nueva Ecija.[citation needed]

Central Europe

[edit]
Further information: Chalking the door
Sternsinger – Christmas carolers in Sanok, Poland

A tradition in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, and German-speaking Catholic areas is the writing of the three kings' initials[c] above the main door of Catholic homes in chalk. The traditional rite of blessing of chalk attests to this by the prayer:

"Bless, + O Lord God, this creature, chalk, and let it be a help to mankind. Grant that those who will use it with faith in your most holy name, and with it inscribe on the doors of their homes the names of your saints, Casper, Melchior, and Baltassar, may through their merits and intercession enjoy health in body and protection of soul; through Christ our Lord."

This is a new year's blessing for the occupants and the initials also are believed to also stand for "Christus mansionem benedicat" ("May/Let Christ Bless This House").[77] Depending on the city or town, this will be happen sometime between Christmas and the Epiphany, with most municipalities celebrating closer to the Epiphany. Also in Catholic parts of the German-speaking world, these markings are made by the Sternsinger (literally, "star singers") – a group of children dressed up as the magi.[78] The Sternsinger carry a star representing the one followed by the biblical magi and sing Christmas carols as they go door to door, such as "Stern über Bethlehem". After singing, the children write the three kings' initials on the door frame in exchange for charitable donations. Each year, German and Austrian dioceses pick one charity towards which all Sternsinger donations nationwide will be contributed.[citation needed]

Sternsinger in Vienna, Austria

Traditionally, one child in the Sternsinger group is said to represent Baltasar from Africa and so, that child typically wears blackface makeup.[79][80] Many Germans do not consider this to be racist because it is not intended to be a negative portrayal of a black person, but rather, a "realistic" or "traditional" portrayal of one.[81] The dialogue surrounding the politics of traditions involving blackface is not as developed as in Spain or the Netherlands.[citation needed] In the past, photographs of German politicians together with children in blackface have caused a stir in English-language press.[82][83] Moreover, Afro-Germans have written that this use of blackface is a missed opportunity to be truly inclusive of Afro-Germans in German-speaking communities and contribute to the equation of "blackness" with "foreignness" and "otherness" in German culture.[84]

In 2010, Epiphany was made a holiday in Poland, thus reviving a pre-World War II tradition.[85] Since 2011, celebrations with biblical costuming have taken place throughout the country. For example, in Warsaw there are processions from Plac Zamkowy down Krakowskie Przedmieście to Plac Piłsudskiego.[86]

Cake

[edit]
Main article: King cake

In Spain and Portugal, a ring-shaped cake (in Portuguese: bolo-rei[87]) contains both a small figurine of one of the Magi (or another surprise depending on the region) and a dry broad bean. The one who gets the figurine is "crowned" (with a crown made of cardboard or paper), but whoever gets the bean has to pay the value of the cake to the person who originally bought it. In Mexico they also have the same ring-shaped cake Rosca de Reyes (Kings Bagel or Thread) with figurines inside it. Whoever gets a figurine is supposed to organise and be the host of the family celebration for the Candelaria feast on February 2.

In France and Belgium, a cake containing a small figure of the baby Jesus, known as the "broad bean", is shared within the family. Whoever gets the bean is crowned king for the remainder of the holiday and wears a cardboard crown purchased with the cake. A similar practice is common in many areas of Switzerland, but the figurine is a miniature king. The practice is known as tirer les Rois (Drawing the Kings). A queen is sometimes also chosen.

In New Orleans, Louisiana, parts of southern Texas, and surrounding regions, a similar ring-shaped cake known as a "King Cake" traditionally becomes available in bakeries from Epiphany to Mardi Gras. The baby Jesus figurine is inserted into the cake from underneath, and the person who gets the slice with the figurine is expected to buy or bake the next King Cake. There is wide variation among the types of pastry that may be called a King Cake, but most are a baked cinnamon-flavoured twisted dough with thin frosting and additional sugar on top in the traditional Mardi Gras colours of gold, green and purple. To prevent accidental injury or choking, the baby Jesus figurine is frequently not inserted into the cake at the bakery, but included in the packaging for optional use by the buyer to insert it themselves. Mardi Gras-style beads and doubloons may be included as well.

Martyrdom traditions

[edit]
The Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral, Germany, c. 1200

Christian scriptures record nothing about the biblical Magi after reporting that they returned to their own country.[d] The Chronicon of Dexter, a martyrological text ascribed to Flavius Lucius Dexter, the bishop of Barcelona under Theodosius the Great (379–396) describes "the martyrdom of the holy kings, the three Magi, Gaspar, Balthassar, and Melchior who adored Christ." in "Arabia Felix, in the city of Sessania of the Adrumeti".[88] First appearing in 1610, the Chronicon of Dexter was immensely popular throughout the 17th century, particularly in Spain. However, by the 19th century, certain historians and Catholic officials in Rome declared the work a pious forgery.[89]

Another competing tradition, most likely originating from Germany, likewise asserts that the biblical Magi were martyred for their faith, albeit without further details.[88]

Tombs

[edit]
Journey of the Magi (top) and Adoration of the Magi (side) on a Limoges champlevé chasse, c. 1200 (Musée de Cluny, Paris)

There are several traditions on where the remains of the Magi are located, none of which have been verified or given veracity by secular historians.

Marco Polo claimed that he was shown the three tombs of the Magi at Saveh, south of Tehran in present day Iran, in the 1270s:

In Persia is the city of Saba, from which the Three Magi set out when they went to worship Jesus Christ; and in this city they are buried, in three very large and beautiful monuments, side by side. And above them there is a square building, carefully kept. The bodies are still entire, with the hair and beard remaining.

— Marco Polo, The Book of the Million, book I, chapter 13

Paul William Roberts provides some modern-day corroboration of this possibility in his book Journey of the Magi.[90]

The bones of the Magi are allegedly contained at the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral in Germany. According to tradition, they were first discovered by Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, on her famous pilgrimage to Palestine and the Holy Lands in 326–28. She took the remains to the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople; in 344, they were transferred to Milan—in some accounts by the city's bishop, Eustorgius I—where they were interred in a special tomb beneath its basilica.[91] In 1162, following the conquest of the city by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I, the Magi's remains were transferred to Cologne Cathedral at the behest of its archbishop, Rainald von Dassel. In response to growing pilgrimages to the relics, von Dassel's successor, Philipp von Hochstaden, commissioned the current Shrine of the Three Kings in the late 12th century, which remains widely visited and venerated.[92] The Milanese treated the fragments of masonry from their now-empty tomb as secondary relics, which were widely distributed around the region, including southern France; this accounts for the frequency with which the Magi appear on chasse reliquaries in Limoges enamel produced in the region.[93] The city continues to celebrate its part in the tradition by holding a medieval costume parade every 6 January.

A version of this account is conveyed by 14th century cleric John of Hildesheim in Historia Trium Regum ("History of the Three Kings"), which begins with the journey of Helena to Jerusalem, where she recovered the True Cross and other relics:

Queen Helen... began to think greatly of the bodies of these three kings, and she arrayed herself, and accompanied by many attendants, went into the Land of Ind... after she had found the bodies of Melchior, Balthazar, and Gaspar, Queen Helen put them into one chest and ornamented it with great riches, and she brought them into Constantinople... and laid them in a church that is called Saint Sophia.

Cultural depictions

[edit]
Main article: Adoration of the Magi

Visual art

[edit]
Adoration of the Magi, tondo by Fra Angelico and Filippo Lippi, c. 1450 (NGA, Washington)

Most depictions of the Magi in European art focus on their visit to Jesus. Also depicted, if less often, were the Journey of the Magi, the Magi before Herod, and the Dream of the Magi. In Byzantine art they are depicted as Persians, wearing trousers and phrygian caps. Crowns appear from the 10th century. Despite being saints, they are very often shown without halos, perhaps to avoid distracting attention from either their crowns or the halos of the Holy Family. Sometimes only the lead king, kneeling to Christ, has a halo the two others lack, probably indicating that the two behind had not yet performed the act of worship that would ensure their status as saints. Medieval artists also allegorised the theme to represent the three ages of man. Beginning in the 12th century, and very often by the 15th, the Kings also represent the three parts of the known (pre-Columbian) world in Western art, especially in Northern Europe. Balthasar is thus represented as a young African or Moor, and Caspar may be depicted with distinctly Oriental features.

An early Anglo-Saxon depiction survives on the Franks Casket (early 7th century, whalebone carving), the only Christian scene, which is combined with pagan and classical imagery. In its composition it follows the oriental style, which renders a courtly scene, with the Virgin and Christ facing the spectator, while the Magi devoutly approach from the (left) side. Even amongst non-Christians who had heard of the Christian story of the Magi, the motif was quite popular, since the Magi had endured a long journey and were generous. Instead of an angel, the picture places a swan-like bird, perhaps interpretable as the hero's fylgja (a protecting spirit, and shapeshifter).

Austrian artist Gottfried Helnwein depicted a more controversial tableau in his painting, Epiphany I: Adoration of the Magi (1996). Intended to represent the "many connections between the Third Reich and the Christian churches in Austria and Germany",[94] Nazi officers in uniform stand around an Aryan Madonna. The Christ toddler who stands on Mary's lap resembles Adolf Hitler.[95]

The Adoration of the Magi, Peter Paul Rubens, 1609 and 1628–29

More generally they appear in popular Nativity scenes and other Christmas decorations that have their origins in the Neapolitan variety of the Italian presepio or Nativity crèche.

Music

[edit]

Some Christmas carols refer to the biblical Magi or Three Kings, especially hymns meant to be sung by the star singers, such as "Stern über Bethlehem". Peter Cornelius composed a song cycle, Weihnachtslieder, Op. 8, which contain the song "Die Könige" (The Kings), which became popular in an English choral arrangement, "The Three Kings". Balthazar, Caspar, and Melchior are also featured in Gian Carlo Menotti's 1951 opera Amahl and the Night Visitors. The popular carol "We Three Kings" is another example. Johann Sebastian Bach's Cantata #65 "Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen" ("All they from Saba shall come") also tells about the Wise Men, based on the Old Testament prophesy found in Isaiah 60:6 ("A multitude of camels shall cover you, the young camels of Midian and Ephah; all those from Sheba shall come. They shall bring gold and frankincense, and shall proclaim the praise of the Lord.")

Cinema

[edit]
See also: List of Christmas films

Numerous films have included these characters in some scenes depicting the Nativity, from The Life and Passion of Jesus Christ (1897) to The Star (2017). In 2003, the Spanish animated film The 3 Wise Men was released, directed by Antonio Navarro and nominated for the Goya Awards.

The 1936 film The Three Wise Guys is a humorous story about 3 criminals who help a girl give birth in a barn in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania and give up a treasure in order to help her. The 1979 Monty Python's film Life of Brian opening scene is a parody of the visit of the Magi.

Literature

[edit]
Adoration of the Magi by Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, c. 1655 (Toledo Museum of Art, Ohio)
  • Henry van Dyke's 1895 novella The Other Wise Man tells the story of Artaban, a fourth magus whose mission of kindness delays his arrival in Bethlehem by one day, missing Jesus and His parents who by then had fled to Egypt. The rest of the plot revolves around Artaban traveling the world throughout Jesus' 33 years on Earth and of the protagonist's multiple attempts to pay homage to the Son of God.
  • The first part of Lewis Wallace's 1880 novel Ben-Hur tells the story of the birth of Christ from Balthasar's point of view. Here Balthasar comes from Egypt and is joined by Melchior, a Hindu, and Gaspar, a Greek. Balthasar remains a recurring character throughout the novel.
  • O. Henry's 1905 short story The Gift of the Magi tells of an impoverished couple named Jim and Della Dillingham Young sacrificing their prized possessions to buy each other Christmas gifts. Della sells her long brown hair to buy a platinum fob chain to go with Jim's pocket watch, only to learn that he had sold it to buy ornamental combs for her hair. In addition to the eponymous magi, the text also mentions the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. The narrator ends the story by claiming that (in comparison between the biblical figures' wealth with the Dillingham Youngs' possessions) those who sacrifice the things they value for the people they love are as wise as the magi themselves.
  • T.S. Eliot's 1927 poem Journey of the Magi is told from an aged king's point of view.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Biblical Magi

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Biblical Magi, rendered in Greek as magoi from the Old Persian term for a hereditary caste of Zoroastrian priests skilled in , , and celestial omens, were a group of unspecified number from the East who, per the Gospel of Matthew, discerned the birth of the "king of the " via a star's rising and journeyed to to pay homage. Informed by King Herod's consultation of Jewish scholars citing 5:2, the Magi proceeded to , where they found the child with Mary his mother, prostrated in worship, and offered gifts of , , and before receiving a divine warning in a dream to evade Herod and return home by another route. This , exclusive to Matthew among the Gospels and unattested in contemporaneous secular records, underscores recognition of ' messianic role amid Jewish elite obliviousness, with the Magi's astrological pursuit aligning the narrative to first-century Parthian or Babylonian scholarly practices rather than implying royal status or precise ethnic origins later ascribed by . The gifts' intrinsic value—gold as currency, frankincense and as aromatic resins from Arabian trade routes—evoke wealth and ritual utility without explicit scriptural symbolism, though post-biblical often links them to ' kingship, priestly mediation, and sacrificial death. Subsequent Christian lore, emerging from second-century and medieval , numerated the visitors as three (inferred from the gifts), named them Caspar, , and Balthasar, and elevated them to kings representing the known world, traditions lacking biblical warrant and amplified in like Epiphany but diverging from the terse Matthean account's focus on fulfilled and cosmic acknowledgment of the .

Biblical Account

Primary Narrative in Matthew

The Gospel of Matthew provides the sole account of the , describing their visit following the birth of in of during the reign of King . The narrative begins with arriving in from the east, inquiring about the newborn "king of the " whose star they had observed at its rising, prompting their journey to worship him. This inquiry unsettles Herod and disturbs , leading him to convene the chief priests and scribes, who cite 5:2 to identify as the prophesied birthplace of the . Herod then summons the Magi privately to ascertain the star's appearance time before directing them to Bethlehem with instructions to search diligently for the child and report back, ostensibly to worship him as well. Departing Jerusalem, the Magi witness the star preceding them until it halts over the location of the child; entering , they find with Mary his mother, prostrate in worship, and present gifts of , , and from their treasures. Divinely warned in a dream against returning to Herod, they withdraw to their homeland via an alternative route. The account specifies no number for the , identifies their origin only as "from the east," and notes the setting as a house rather than the birthplace implied elsewhere, suggesting an interval after the nativity. Herod's era places the event before his in 4 BCE, consistent with Roman historical records of his rule from 37 BCE. The narrative emphasizes the Magi's astrological cue and voluntary homage, contrasting with Herod's duplicity, without detailing the star's nature or the Magi's precise identity beyond "" (Greek magoi, denoting eastern wise men or astrologers).

Omission in Other Canonical Texts

The account of the Magi visiting the infant appears exclusively in the Gospel of Matthew (2:1–12), with no parallel narrative in the other three canonical Gospels. The Gospel of Mark, the earliest of the , contains no infancy narrative whatsoever, commencing instead with John the Baptist's ministry and ' baptism around AD 28–29, thereby omitting any details of ' birth or early visitors. This selective focus aligns with Mark's emphasis on ' public ministry and miracles rather than biographical origins. The Gospel of Luke provides an alternative nativity account centered on the to Mary, a under (circa 6–4 BC), the , and the visitation by shepherds guided by angels, but it makes no reference to Magi, a star, or gifts from eastern visitors. Scholars attribute this omission to Luke's thematic priorities, which highlight Jewish fulfillment through humble, local figures like shepherds while integrating Roman imperial context via the census; the absence of Magi avoids potential overlap with Matthew's Gentile-inclusive motif. The Gospel of John likewise omits any birth narrative, beginning with a theological prologue on the divine (Word) becoming flesh, followed by John the Baptist's testimony and ' early ministry signs, without mention of or astral phenomena. This structure reflects John's high and symbolic rather than chronological approach, where infancy events are unnecessary to establish ' preexistent divinity. Biblical scholarship generally views these omissions not as contradictions but as evidence of the evangelists' independent sources and editorial choices to emphasize distinct aspects of ' identity—Matthew underscoring messianic and universal appeal through the 's homage, paralleling Old Testament gentile recognition like Balaam's oracle (Numbers 22–24). The canonical texts, composed between approximately AD 65–100, function as theological testimonies rather than comprehensive biographies, explaining selective inclusions across the corpus.

Key Elements and Chronology

The Biblical narrative in Matthew 2:1-12 describes the as visitors from "the east" who observed a star signifying the birth of "the king of the " and undertook a journey to worship him. Upon arriving in , they inquired publicly about the child's location, prompting alarm among King Herod and the city's residents, as no such royal birth had been announced locally. Herod, a client king under Roman authority who ruled until his death in , secretly summoned the to learn the timing of the star's appearance and consulted Jewish chief priests and scribes, who cited 5:2 to identify as the prophesied birthplace. Herod directed the to , urging them to report back, while the text attributes his intent to covertly eliminate the perceived threat. The departed for , approximately five miles south, where the reappeared, guiding them precisely to the location and halting overhead. They entered —distinct from the manger setting in —and found the child with Mary his mother, prostrating in worship and presenting gifts of , , and , materials valued in antiquity for their rarity and utility in , , and . A divine warning in a dream instructed them to avoid returning to Herod, leading them home via an alternative route, after which Herod ordered the massacre of male children in aged two and under, calibrated to the Magi's reported timeframe for the 's rising. Chronologically, the events follow ' birth in during Herod's reign but precede the family's flight to prompted by the slaughter. The Greek term pais for ("child") contrasts with brephos ("infant") in Luke's nativity, indicating the visit occurred after the initial newborn phase, likely post-circumcision and temple presentation at 40 days per Leviticus 12:3-4. Herod's two-year cutoff for the , based on the Magi's information about the star, suggests an interval of up to two years from birth, accounting for travel from the east (possibly 800-1000 miles, requiring months by caravan). This timing aligns with ' birth circa 6-4 BC, inferred from Herod's death and the star's possible observed by eastern astrologers. The sequence underscores a deliberate progression: stellar portent, extended journey, inquiry, arrival, worship, and evasion of Herod's trap, without specifying the Magi's exact number or names, which derive from later traditions rather than the text.

Terminology and Etymology

Definition of 'Magi' in Ancient Contexts

The term Magi (Greek: μάγοι, magoi), derived from the Old Persian maguš, denoted a hereditary priestly caste among the ancient Medes and Persians, originating as one of the six tribes of the Medes in the region of modern-day northern Iran around the 7th-6th centuries BCE. This caste specialized in religious rituals, including sacrifices, divination, and interpretation of omens, often without the use of fire in offerings as noted in early accounts. Their role emphasized purity, esoteric knowledge, and mediation between the divine and earthly realms, forming an elite class within Median and later Achaemenid society. Herodotus, writing in the mid-5th century BCE, described the as influential court figures under Persian kings, tasked with expelling pollution through ritual chants and handling sacred duties such as and soothsaying. These priests were integral to Zoroastrian practices, preserving sacred texts, conducting ceremonies, and advising rulers on celestial signs and prophecies, which linked them to astronomy and . By the Achaemenid era (c. 550-330 BCE), the had become the official priesthood, performing state rituals and maintaining orthodoxy amid the empire's diverse cults. In broader ancient Near Eastern contexts, the term evolved to connote learned specialists in the sciences, though early sources like portray them without the later Greek pejorative connotation of "magicians" or charlatans; instead, they were respected custodians of tradition. and other Greek historians similarly referenced the as Persian religious experts, underscoring their hereditary status and advisory functions at court. This predates Hellenistic influences, where the word began to generalize to any Eastern wise men or astrologers, but retained its core association with Iranian priestly authority.

Biblical Usage and Translation Variations

The Greek term μάγοι (magoi), the plural form of μάγος (magos), appears exclusively in the Gospel of Matthew at 2:1, 2:7, and 2:16, describing visitors from the East who followed a star to locate the newborn king of the . This usage denotes a group of foreign specialists in interpreting celestial signs and dreams, drawing from its earlier attestation in ' Histories (mid-5th century BCE), where magoi are portrayed as a priestly tribe skilled in omen interpretation and ritual practices within the Persian context. Elsewhere in the , the related singular magos carries negative connotations, as in :9 (Simon Magus as a sorcerer) and Acts 13:6,8 ( as a and magician), highlighting a semantic range that includes both learned interpreters and practitioners of deceptive arts. Translation variations stem from this ambiguity, with English renderings balancing the term's neutral or positive implication of wisdom in Matthew against its pejorative associations in other passages. The King James Version (1611) opts for "wise men" to evoke scholarly insight akin to the counselors in :48 (Septuagint magoi), avoiding evocations of sorcery prevalent in Hellenistic usage. In contrast, the (1978, revised 2011) and (1995, updated 2020) retain "Magi" as a , preserving the foreign, technical sense of Persian or priest-astrologers without anglicizing to imply generic wisdom. The (2001, revised 2016) follows the "wise men" , reflecting a preference for interpretive equivalence over literalism to align with the narrative's emphasis on their astrological discernment rather than magical .
Bible VersionRendering of Magoi in Matthew 2:1Rationale Noted in Scholarship
KJV (1611)Wise menEmphasizes , paralleling OT advisers; avoids sorcery link seen in Acts.
NIV (2011)Transliterates to retain ethnic/priestly origin from Persian magush.
ESV (2016)Wise menPrioritizes contextual over potential magical undertones.
NASB (2020)Literal for precision in denoting specialized Eastern figures.
The Latin (late 4th century) uses magi, influencing ecclesiastical tradition and later European translations, which often default to this form to underscore the visitors' exotic, non-Jewish status in fulfilling messianic prophecies. These choices reflect translators' efforts to navigate the term's evolution from Zoroastrian priestly roles—evidenced in Achaemenid inscriptions—to Greco-Roman perceptions of Eastern occultism, ensuring the Matthew pericope conveys reverent seekers rather than charlatans.

Historical Context and Possible Identities

Origins from Eastern Regions

The Gospel of Matthew describes the as arriving "from the east" (Greek: apō anatolōn) to following a star, seeking the newborn "king of the ," without specifying a precise location or ethnicity beyond this directional origin. This eastern provenance aligns with the broader cultural and historical associations of the term magoi (), which derives from maguši, denoting a originating among the in ancient around the 6th century BCE. , the 5th-century BCE Greek historian, identifies the as a tribe integrated into the Persian Empire's religious hierarchy, where they served as hereditary priests responsible for rituals, , and possibly early Zoroastrian practices, though direct Zoroastrian links remain debated due to limited pre-Achaemenid textual evidence. In the Near Eastern context of the late Persian and Parthian periods (circa 550 BCE–224 CE), the Magi held influential roles as advisors to kings, combining religious authority with astrological and political expertise, which fits Matthew's portrayal of star-observing visitors bearing royal gifts. The Parthian Empire, centered in what is now Iran and extending eastward, represented Rome's primary eastern rival during the 1st century BCE–CE, and its Magi functioned as a priestly-political class capable of long-distance diplomatic or pilgrimage journeys to Judea, potentially motivated by messianic prophecies preserved in Babylonian Jewish communities influenced by figures like Daniel. Babylonian or Chaldean origins are also proposed, given the region's renowned astronomical traditions—Chaldean priests tracked celestial events and maintained libraries of omens—though the term magoi more precisely evokes Persianate priestly figures rather than strictly Mesopotamian ones. Speculation extends to further eastern locales like or even due to Silk Road exchanges and vague Hellenistic reports of eastern sages, but these lack direct textual or archaeological support tying them to the magoi designation or Matthew's narrative, which prioritizes a plausible overland route from Parthian or Persian territories. No contemporary inscriptions or artifacts definitively identify the biblical Magi, rendering precise origins inferential; however, the convergence of Greek usage of magoi for eastern and the geopolitical realities of the —Parthia's proximity and rivalry with Herod's —supports their emergence from regions rather than fabricated symbolism. Early Christian interpreters, such as in the 2nd century CE, reinforced Persian ties by linking the Magi to Zoroastrian expectations of a savior figure, though this reflects theological adaptation more than empirical verification.

Social and Religious Role of Magi Figures

The constituted a hereditary priestly class originating among the , one of the six tribes in ancient Media, and later integral to the religious and administrative apparatus of the Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550–330 BCE). As a specialized , they held significant , often serving as advisors at the royal , participating in bureaucratic functions, and maintaining ceremonial roles that bridged religious authority with state governance. Their status as hereditary experts in Iranian religious traditions afforded them privileges, including exemption from certain taxes and in some periods, reflecting their embedded role in and Persian society where they were the primary sacerdotal group, particularly in western Iranian regions like Media and Persia. Religiously, the Magi functioned as custodians of cultic practices in pre-Zoroastrian and Zoroastrian contexts, performing fire sacrifices, maintaining sacred fire altars, and conducting rituals depicted in Achaemenid-era reliefs where they appear alongside altars engaged in offerings. They were responsible for interpreting dreams, omens, and celestial phenomena, skills rooted in Median traditions and later formalized in Zoroastrianism as duties of the athravan (priestly) order, which the Magi joined or influenced. In the Achaemenid period, their roles extended to overseeing burials, calendar maintenance through astronomical observations, and divination, positioning them as intermediaries between the divine and temporal realms without the connotation of sorcery later attached by Greek sources like Herodotus, who described them as hereditary priests handling sacrifices and dream interpretation. This expertise in astrology and prophecy aligned with their portrayal in historical texts as learned figures capable of recognizing significant cosmic signs, a trait echoed in accounts of eastern wise men discerning royal births through stars. Under the Parthian (247 BCE–224 CE) and Sasanian (224–651 CE) empires, the solidified as Zoroastrian priests, enforcing orthodoxy, compiling sacred texts like the , and leading communal worship, though their influence waned amid internal corruptions and external conquests, as noted in later Persian histories. Despite occasional revolts, such as the Magian uprising suppressed by Darius I around 522 BCE, their priestly monopoly endured, shaping perceptions of the as authoritative religious elites whose counsel extended to kings on matters of piety and policy. Primary sources like and Persian inscriptions confirm their non-magical, ritualistic focus, countering Hellenistic distortions that conflated them with charlatans, emphasizing instead a pragmatic priesthood sustaining imperial stability through spiritual oversight.

Astronomical and Astrological Interpretations of the Star

Various astronomical phenomena have been proposed as candidates for the described in :1-12, where it appeared to the , prompted their journey from the East, and later guided them precisely to the location of the child in . One prominent theory involves a of and Saturn in the constellation Pisces occurring in 7 BC, with close approaches on May 29, October 3, and December 1; this event was visible to the over several months and has been linked to the star since Kepler's calculations in the early . , often called the "king planet" in ancient astronomy due to its brightness and association with royalty, combined with Saturn (linked to time or authority) in Pisces, which some ancient astrologers connected to the region of or the Jewish people. However, this conjunction did not produce a single bright "star" nor exhibit the halting motion implied in the text, as planetary conjunctions appear to move gradually across the sky. Another candidate is a comet recorded in Chinese astronomical annals in 5 BC, described as a "broom star" (indicating a visible tail) appearing in the east and lasting approximately 70 days, which aligns with the timeline of a phenomenon drawing eastern observers westward. This comet, potentially the same one noted in other records from to , would have been conspicuous and mobile, fitting the narrative of a guiding light, though comets were typically viewed as portents of upheaval rather than auspicious births in ancient Near Eastern cultures. A conjunction of and on June 17, 2 BC, has also been suggested, creating an exceptionally bright object visible at dawn, but this falls later than the estimated date of ' birth (circa 6-4 BC, based on Herod the Great's death in 4 BC). Other proposals include a nova or explosion, though no corresponding records exist in reliable ancient catalogs for the relevant period, or a series of -Regulus conjunctions in 3-2 BC symbolizing a king () near the "crown" stars of Leo. From an astrological perspective, the Magi—likely Zoroastrian priests or Babylonian scholars versed in Hellenistic astrology—would have interpreted such events through omens signaling the birth of a king in Judea, where Aries was the zodiacal sign for the region in some ancient systems, prompting vigilance for planetary activity there. Michael Molnar's analysis posits that an occultation of Jupiter by the Moon in Aries on April 17, 6 BC, carried royal significance: Jupiter's "reappearance" from behind the Moon evoked a king's enthronement, a rare event visible from the eastern Mediterranean that could have alerted astrologers to a Jewish ruler's advent. The Jupiter-Saturn conjunction in Pisces similarly fits Babylonian astrological cycles, where such alignments every 20 years shifted through zodiac signs, with the Pisces phase (circa 7 BC) heralding events for "the Jews" according to preserved texts like the Babylonian Almanac. These interpretations explain the Magi's response without requiring a literal star, though they rely on selective ancient zodiacal associations that vary across sources and do not account for the star's precise directional guidance in the biblical account. No single natural or astrological explanation fully reconciles the textual details of appearance, disappearance, and pinpointing, leading some scholars to favor a miraculous element alongside possible natural triggers.

Gifts Presented

Biblical Description of the Offerings

The Gospel of Matthew records that the , upon finding the child in a house with his mother Mary, "opened their treasures" and presented him with three specific gifts: , , and . This presentation followed their worship of the child, marking the culmination of their journey prompted by the star. The text provides no further details on the , , or precise manner of delivery of these offerings, nor does it elaborate on their selection beyond the act itself. Gold, as described, refers to the known in ancient Near Eastern contexts for its value and use in royal tribute. , a derived from trees, was a costly aromatic substance commonly burned as in religious rituals. , another from species, was valued for its fragrance, medicinal properties, and use in and . These items are enumerated distinctly in the without implication of additional gifts or symbolic intent within the verse itself. No other passage mentions these offerings, confining the description solely to Matthew's account.

Material and Symbolic Meanings

Gold, as a precious metal, held immense material value in the ancient Near East and served as a standard tribute to honor kings and deities. Its rarity and durability made it a symbol of wealth and royal authority, often presented in ingots or coins during diplomatic or honorific exchanges. Symbolically, early Christian interpreters, such as Irenaeus in the second century, linked gold to Christ's kingship, viewing it as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies depicting the Messiah receiving royal tribute, like Psalm 72:10-11 where kings bring gifts. Frankincense, derived from the resin of trees native to regions like southern Arabia and the , was harvested by scoring the bark and collecting the aromatic sap, which was then traded along the Incense Road for its use in religious incense, perfumes, and medicines. Its high trade value, sometimes equated to in worth, stemmed from its scarcity and demand in temple rituals across Persian, Egyptian, and Jewish practices, where it was burned to produce fragrant smoke. In symbolic terms, represented and priestly worship, as its ritual burning paralleled offerings to , prefiguring ' divine nature and role as in . Myrrh, extracted similarly from Commiphora trees in arid eastern regions, was valued for its bitter resin used in anointing oils, perfumes, analgesics, and embalming processes, particularly in Egyptian mummification and Persian medicine for treating inflammation and wounds. Like frankincense, it commanded premium prices in ancient trade networks due to its medicinal and preservative qualities. Symbolically, myrrh foreshadowed suffering and death, evoking its use in burial rites and Jesus' crucifixion where it was offered as a drink (Mark 15:23), with early interpreters seeing it as prophetic of his sacrificial atonement. These interpretations, while not explicit in Matthew's Gospel, emerged in patristic writings to underscore the gifts' theological depth beyond mere material offerings.

Theological and Prophetic Implications

Gentile Recognition of Messiah

The Magi's journey to worship the infant , as recounted in :1-12, exemplifies early acknowledgment of the , with these non-Jewish visitors from the East—likely astrologers or sages from regions such as Persia or —arriving in to inquire about "he who has been born king of the " and offering homage upon locating him. Their proactive response to an astral phenomenon, prompting travel across significant distances to present royal gifts, demonstrates a foreign elite's discernment of ' messianic identity, independent of Jewish temple authorities or prophetic traditions. This episode positions the Magi as prototypes of inclusion in history, contrasting sharply with the Jewish King Herod's fear and the scribes' mere informational role, thereby emphasizing that divine extends beyond ethnic boundaries. Theologically, the Magi's recognition aligns with anticipations of non-Israelite rulers drawn to Yahweh's glory manifested in the Davidic heir. 60:3 prophesies that "nations shall come to your light, and kings to the brightness of your rising," a passage early interpreters linked directly to the Magi's approach as symbolic of global homage to the Messiah's dawn. Similarly, Psalm 72:10-11 envisions kings from distant realms like bearing tribute and bowing before the anointed king, reinforcing the motif of extraterritorial submission that the Magi's actions embody. These fulfillments underscore a causal progression from Jewish particularism to universal kingship, where the Messiah's advent prompts voluntary allegiance without prior covenantal ties. In broader New Testament context, the Magi's veneration prefigures the church's mission to Gentiles, as articulated in Matthew's genealogy and , signaling that Jesus' messiahship inherently demands worldwide fealty rather than confinement to . This recognition by outsiders, unprompted by Mosaic law, highlights empirical precedence for the gospel's appeal, evidenced by the Magi's circumvention of Jerusalem's religious center to worship at .

Fulfillment of Old Testament Prophecies

The narrative of the Magi in Matthew 2:1-12 has been understood by early Christian interpreters, such as Justin Martyr (c. 150 AD), as a fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies anticipating Gentile rulers honoring the Messiah with gifts and guided by a celestial sign. This typological reading emphasizes the Magi's foreign origin, their worship, and their offerings as prefigured in prophetic texts, though modern critical scholarship varies in assessing the direct intentionality of Matthew's Gospel in evoking these passages without explicit quotations. The star that prompted the Magi's journey is linked to Balaam's oracle in Numbers 24:17, which states, "a star shall come out of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out of Israel," portraying a future ruler emerging from Israel with cosmic significance. Early Jewish and Christian exegesis treated this as messianic, with the star symbolizing divine authority, and the Magi's response—traveling to worship the "king of the Jews" upon seeing it—aligns with this imagery of a heavenly sign heralding Israel's promised dominion. While the prophecy does not specify Eastern visitors, the narrative's depiction of the star's reappearance over Bethlehem (Matthew 2:9) evokes the oracle's promise of visible guidance to the Messiah's advent. The Magi's presentation of gold and frankincense further corresponds to Isaiah 60:3-6, envisioning nations and kings drawn to Zion's rising light, bearing "gold and frankincense" while proclaiming the Lord's praises. This passage, part of Isaiah's vision of restoration, predicts tribute from distant regions like Midian, Ephah, and Sheba—evoking Eastern trade routes—and the Magi's homage embodies the prophesied influx of Gentiles to the Messiah, transcending Israel's boundaries. Psalm 72:10-11 complements this, foretelling kings of Tarshish, Sheba, and Seba offering gifts and all rulers bowing before the Davidic king's son, with the Magi's act of prostration and tribute (gold symbolizing kingship) mirroring the royal acknowledgment of divine rule. The inclusion of myrrh among the gifts, absent from these prophecies' listed offerings, has been noted by some commentators as evidence against a contrived fulfillment, suggesting the account draws from historical events while evoking prophetic motifs selectively. Overall, these connections underscore a theological theme of universal kingship, where the Messiah's birth draws non-Jewish elites, initiating the prophesied expansion of salvation beyond .

Contrast with Jewish Expectations

The Jewish messianic expectations, rooted in prophecies such as those in :6–7 and 5:2, anticipated a Davidic descendant who would emerge as a powerful to liberate from foreign oppression, reestablish the throne in , and usher in an era of universal peace and Jewish primacy. These hopes, prevalent in the first century BCE amid Roman domination, typically envisioned the as an adult warrior-king akin to , capable of immediate political and military triumph, rather than a vulnerable requiring protection. Jewish scholars and leaders, well-versed in these scriptures, expected the Messiah's advent to galvanize national recognition and allegiance from within Israel, not prompt disturbance among the populace or court intrigue from figures like . In stark contrast, the — astrologers from the East—arrived in inquiring specifically about "he who has been born king of the ," guided by a celestial sign rather than direct prophetic consultation, subverting the anticipation that such would originate from Jewish religious authorities. While the chief priests accurately identified as the Messiah's birthplace per 5:2 when queried by Herod (:4–6), they exhibited no initiative to verify or worship the child themselves, highlighting a disconnect between scriptural and responsive . Herod, an Idumean appointee viewed with suspicion by many for his non-Davidic lineage and pro-Roman policies, reacted with and , ordering the slaughter of innocents in (:16), which underscored the peril of messianic claims in a context expecting a rival to earthly power rather than a divine . This episode thus embodies an irony wherein outsiders, possibly informed by ancient Jewish prophecies disseminated through Babylonian communities, demonstrated proactive worship and costly tribute to the newborn king, while insiders prioritized political stability over prophetic fulfillment. The Magi's joyful before in humble circumstances (:11) defied expectations of a triumphant entry into , prefiguring the broader theme of inclusion and Jewish leadership's frequent opposition, as later echoed in Romans 11:11–12. Such dynamics challenged parochial views of the as exclusively Israel's deliverer, revealing instead a universal kingship that elicited threat from entrenched powers.

Development of Traditions

Emergence of the Number Three

The Gospel of Matthew describes the as a plural group from the East who presented gifts of , , and to the infant , but provides no explicit count of their number. This omission left room for interpretive traditions, with the three distinct gifts serving as the primary basis for later associating the visitors with the numeral three, implying one representative per offering. The explicit linkage of the Magi to the number three first emerges in the writings of the third-century Church Father , who in his (circa 248 AD) inferred their quantity directly from the trio of gifts, marking an early patristic rationalization of the Matthean account. Prior to this, second-century sources like referenced the Magi as kings without specifying a count, focusing instead on their royal status derived from Persian tribal contexts. 's exegesis reflected a broader Hellenistic-Jewish interpretive practice of deriving numerical symbolism from scriptural elements, though it lacked direct biblical warrant and contrasted with some Eastern traditions that posited varying numbers, such as two or twelve, based on zodiacal or apocalyptic motifs. Artistic evidence corroborates this textual shift, as the earliest known depictions of the Magi appear in Roman catacomb frescoes from the third century, including one in the that portrays three figures adoring the child alongside his mother, aligning with the emerging triadic convention. These subterranean images, executed in a period of intermittent Christian persecution, prioritized symbolic brevity over historical precision, favoring the three-gift motif to evoke themes of homage and prophetic fulfillment from Numbers 24:17 and Psalm 72:10-11. By the fourth century, as gained imperial favor under Constantine, liturgical commemorations of the Epiphany on increasingly standardized the trio in homilies and hymns, embedding the number in Western despite the absence of canonical specification. This tradition persisted and amplified in medieval , where commentators like (eighth century) further allegorized the three as representing , hope, and charity, but the causal root remained the Matthean gifts rather than empirical or extra-biblical testimony. Eastern Syriac sources occasionally retained fluid into the sixth century, reflecting regional diversity, yet the Western consensus on three—driven by scriptural literalism tied to the offerings—dominated global and devotion by the .

Assignment of Names and Ethnicities

The Gospel of Matthew identifies the only as visitors "from the East" without specifying names, ethnicities, or precise origins. Traditions assigning personal names and diverse ethnic backgrounds emerged in early medieval Christian texts, reflecting interpretive expansions rather than scriptural details. These developments aimed to symbolize the 's role in representing the universal scope of Christ's kingship, drawing on symbolic associations with the three gifts and broader theological motifs of inclusion. The names Balthasar, Caspar (or ), and first appear in a Greek manuscript likely composed around 500 AD in , , marking an early Western attribution. By the seventh century, Latin variants of these names—, , and Balthasar—circulated in martyrologies and liturgical texts, solidifying their use in European . The Biblical Magi, traditionally named Caspar, Melchior, and Balthasar and widely believed to have been Zoroastrian priests, are venerated as saints in the Catholic Church; they are commemorated on the Feast of the Epiphany (January 6) and listed in the Roman Martyrology. An eighth-century religious chronicle further popularized them, associating Balthasar with meanings like "God will help" in Hebrew-derived , though such interpretations postdate the biblical account. Ethnic assignments varied across traditions but often linked the Magi to distinct regions to evoke the three known continents or biblical divisions of humanity from Noah's sons (Shem, Ham, Japheth). Melchior was commonly portrayed as from Persia or the Far East (Asia), Caspar from Arabia or India, and Balthasar from Ethiopia or Africa, with the latter frequently depicted as Black in European art from the fifteenth century onward to signify African representation. In Spanish customs, this aligns explicitly with Europe (Melchior), Asia (Caspar), and Africa (Balthasar). Ethiopian lore alternatively claims all three as local figures, tying them to King Bazen of Aksum, though this remains a regional legend without broader attestation. These ethnic portrayals, while not historically verifiable, underscore medieval efforts to universalize the Nativity narrative across cultural lines.

Legends of Kingship and Martyrdom

Legends portraying the Biblical Magi as kings emerged from interpretations of Old Testament prophecies foretelling gentile rulers offering tribute to the Messiah, such as Psalm 72:10-11, which describes kings of Tarshish, Sheba, and Seba bringing gifts and falling down in worship. Early church fathers like Tertullian and Origen, writing in the third century, began associating the Magi with these royal figures, linking their gifts—particularly gold—to symbols of earthly kingship. By the sixth century, Eastern Christian traditions explicitly referred to them as kings, a designation that spread to the West by the tenth and eleventh centuries, influenced by the Magi's opulent arrival and the theological emphasis on Christ's universal kingship attracting monarchs from afar. Medieval elaborations further solidified their royal status, depicting them as sovereigns from distinct realms—often Persia, India, and Arabia—representing the known world's diversity and acknowledging Christ's dominion over all nations. These accounts, drawn from apocryphal texts and hagiographic compilations, portrayed the Magi returning home after their visit to , where they ruled justly under Christian principles, having been divinely warned in dreams to avoid Herod. Traditions of their martyrdom developed in later legends, asserting that the Magi, after decades of pious rule, encountered the in around 40 years post-Epiphany, who baptized them and commissioned their evangelism. They subsequently preached successfully in their lands, converting many before facing and execution for their faith, thus earning veneration as saints and martyrs in Christian lore. Although widely believed to have been Zoroastrian priests, no Zoroastrian figures have been formally canonized as saints by the Catholic Church in the modern process, as canonization requires evidence of Christian faith and heroic virtue. However, the Biblical Magi are venerated as saints based on Christian traditions of their recognition of Christ and legends of their conversion and martyrdom; they are commemorated on the Feast of the Epiphany (January 6) and listed in the Roman Martyrology. Some variants describe their deaths occurring sequentially in a shared , accompanied by miraculous accommodations of for the survivors, underscoring themes of fraternal unity and divine favor. These narratives, while not attested in scripture, reflect medieval efforts to extend the Magi's into apostolic-era zeal and sacrificial testimony.

Scholarly Debates on Historicity

Arguments for Historical Basis

Scholars advocating for the historical basis of the emphasize the of Matthew's early composition, dated by some to the mid-first century AD, which positions it as a proximate eyewitness-informed account rather than later legend. The narrative's integration into Matthew's structured infancy account, paralleling Luke's without contradiction on the visit's timing, suggests factual reporting over midrashic invention, as Matthew avoids allegorical markers typical of Jewish interpretive styles. The term "Magi" refers to a known class of Median-Persian priestly astrologers, influential in the (247 BC–224 AD), who practiced celestial observation and held advisory roles to kings, making a delegation responding to a stellar sign plausible in the geopolitical context of Herod's reign (37–4 BC). Parthian interest in Judean affairs, evidenced by their 40 BC invasion supporting Antigonus as king and ongoing border tensions with , could motivate such figures to investigate a prophesied Jewish , especially if informed by Babylonian Jewish exilic traditions preserving messianic expectations like Numbers 24:17's "star out of ." The Magi's journey from "the East," likely Babylon or Persia under Parthian control, aligns with trade routes and cultural exchanges; and were staples of eastern commerce, while symbolized royal tribute, fitting a delegation honoring a perceived rather than mere fantasy. Matthew's omission of Jewish priestly involvement in recognizing the , contrasted with Magi, would be an unlikely embarrassment for a fabricating author aiming to appeal to Jewish audiences, implying reliance on transmitted tradition. Papal scholar Joseph Ratzinger (later Benedict XVI) argued the reflects verifiable events, not theological meditation disguised as story, given its concrete details like Herod's inquiry and the flight to , which cohere with known Herodian toward rivals. While direct extra-biblical corroboration is absent—unsurprising for a minor entourage amid vast empires—the account's restraint (no named individuals, unspecified number) and avoidance of miraculous embellishment beyond the support oral historical kernel over mythic accretion. Astronomical proposals further bolster the plausibility of the star as a natural event motivating the Magi; physicist Colin J. Humphreys analyzed a comet recorded in Chinese annals in 5 BC as matching the Star of Bethlehem's description and timing. NASA scientist Mark Matney's 2025 study employs orbital computations to demonstrate how this comet could exhibit temporary geosynchronous motion, appearing to "stop" over Bethlehem, interpretable by ancient astrologers as a significant portent.

Skeptical Views and Mythicist Claims

Skeptical biblical scholars argue that the account of the Magi's visit in lacks historical verifiability, appearing solely in that without multiple attestation from independent sources, which diminishes its reliability under standard criteria of authenticity. The narrative's structure draws heavily on motifs, such as gentile recognition of Israel's king (e.g., parallels to in Numbers 22–24 and exodus themes echoing ' infancy), suggesting it functions as midrashic elaboration to underscore theological themes like ' messianic kingship and universal appeal rather than literal reportage. New Testament critic Bart Ehrman attributes the story to Matthew's agenda of portraying righteous Gentiles affirming amid Jewish rejection, viewing it as legendary due to its absence elsewhere and inherent implausibilities. Further doubts arise from inconsistencies with Luke's nativity account, which omits the , places the family in for a under (dated to 6 CE, post-Herod's death in 4 BCE), and features shepherds instead, implying no awareness of eastern astrologers or a royal inquiry during ' early years. The subsequent flight to and Herod's of 's boys under two years old find no corroboration in Flavius ' detailed chronicle of Herod's reign, and Jewish War, which records the king's other infanticides and purges but omits this event despite its scale in a small locale (estimated at 20–30 victims). Such silence from a contemporary focused on Herod's tyrannies supports claims of narrative invention to evoke Pharaoh's slaughter in Exodus 1. The poses additional challenges, described as rising, guiding westward to , then "going before" the to halt over a house—behaviors defying known , as stars and planets do not "stop" or pinpoint locations terrestrially. Physicist Aaron Adair, in analyzing proposed astronomical candidates like planetary conjunctions (e.g., Jupiter-Saturn in 7–6 BCE), concludes none match Matthew's portent adequately, arguing the tale reflects astrological symbolism common in antiquity rather than an observed event. Mythicists, extending skepticism to Jesus' biography overall, interpret the Magi as a constructed euhemerism incorporating Hellenistic and Zoroastrian motifs—e.g., eastern sages following a divine sign to honor a god-king—absent empirical anchors and paralleling solar or prophetic legends to retroject messianic fulfillment onto a mythic figure. This perspective aligns with broader critiques positing the infancy narratives as post-hoc legend to compete with imperial birth stories, ungrounded in first-century records.

Evaluation of Extra-Biblical Evidence

No contemporary non-Christian sources document the arrival of Magi in during Herod the Great's reign (37–4 BCE) to inquire about a newborn king of the , as described in Matthew 2:1–12. Roman historians such as and reference ' later execution under but provide no details on his birth or associated portents involving Eastern visitors. Flavius Josephus, a first-century Jewish historian, chronicles Herod's extensive paranoia, family executions, and responses to omens in works like Antiquities of the Jews and The Jewish War, yet omits any mention of foreign astrologers warning of a rival heir or prompting a child massacre in . This silence persists despite Josephus recording other celestial signs, such as a interpreted as foretelling Jerusalem's fall in 70 CE. Eastern records, including or Babylonian annals, similarly lack references to such a delegation, though diplomatic exchanges between and occurred amid Roman-Parthian rivalries. The designation "Magi" (Greek magoi) aligns with a historically attested from ancient Media and Persia, skilled in , , and Zoroastrian rituals, as detailed by in Histories (ca. 440 BCE) and later by and . These sources confirm Magi's role as mobile advisors capable of interpreting royal omens and traveling for political or religious motives, lending cultural plausibility to Matthew's portrayal of Eastern sages tracking a stellar sign. However, this general historicity of the figure type does not corroborate the particular journey to , which would have implicated Herod's stability amid documented succession crises. Apocryphal Christian texts, such as the Revelation of the Magi (a Syriac composition possibly redacted in the 8th century CE but claiming ancient roots), elaborate on the Magi's origins and star vision but derive from intra-Christian lore rather than independent verification. Scholarly assessments vary: skeptics attribute the narrative's isolation to mythic embellishment fulfilling prophecies like Isaiah 60:3 or Numbers 24:17, while defenders posit an unrecorded oral tradition or deliberate suppression by Herod's court. The evidentiary gap underscores methodological challenges in verifying first-century events reliant on a single Gospel, particularly amid academia's frequent prioritization of naturalistic explanations over traditional testimonies.

Cultural and Liturgical Impact

Early Christian Commemorations

In , the visit of the to the infant was commemorated within the broader Feast of Epiphany (or in Eastern traditions), fixed on January 6 and encompassing Christ's nativity, the Magi's adoration, and his baptism by John. This observance, centered in Eastern churches such as those in , , and , predated the widespread adoption of on December 25 and reflected a unified celebration of divine manifestations rather than isolated events. The feast's origins trace to at least the third century, with indirect evidence from (c. 150–215 AD), who referenced as a date for calculating and honoring Christ's birth in some communities, aligning with later Epiphany traditions that incorporated the Magi's journey from Matthew 2. By the fourth century, Oriental churches explicitly marked the day with liturgies recalling the Magi's gifts and worship, as documented in early ecclesiastical calendars; Syrian Christians termed it denho ("up-going"), evoking the rising light of symbolized by the star guiding the Magi. The earliest explicit historical reference to Epiphany as a formal Christian feast dates to 361 AD, recorded by the pagan historian , who noted dual observances on and 10—likely distinguishing baptismal rites from nativity and Magi's adoration—amid Emperor Julian's reign. These commemorations emphasized the Magi's role as witnesses to Christ's kingship, with liturgical readings from and hymns extolling the gifts of gold, , and as prophetic fulfillments. In the Catholic Church, the Biblical Magi are venerated as saints, commemorated specifically on the Feast of the Epiphany on January 6, and inscribed in the Roman Martyrology. Although the term "Magi" refers to a priestly class in Zoroastrianism and the Biblical Magi are widely believed to have been Zoroastrian priests, they are the only such figures venerated as saints in Catholicism; no other Zoroastrian individuals are known to be venerated as saints in the Catholic Church, and none have been formally canonized through the modern process, which requires evidence of Christian faith and heroic virtue. Western churches gradually adopted and adapted the feast, separating it from nativity by the late fourth century, but retained the Magi's veneration as a core element.

Medieval and Regional Customs

In the , the veneration of the Biblical Magi's relics became a central aspect of their cult, particularly following the transfer of purported remains from to in 1164 by Rainald of Dassel. These relics, housed in a grand reliquary shrine crafted between 1190 and 1220 by Nicholas of Verdun and his workshop using gold, silver, enamel, and gems, were enshrined above the high altar of , drawing pilgrims and enhancing the city's prestige as a religious center. The shrine's basilica-shaped design and intricate decorations symbolized the Magi's kingship, with the relics formally recognized as those of saints , , and Balthasar after 1164, consistent with their established veneration as saints in the Catholic Church despite their traditional Zoroastrian priestly origins, fostering widespread devotion across . Medieval liturgical customs emphasized Epiphany on as the feast commemorating the Magi's adoration, often featuring dramatic representations in churches that reenacted their journey and gifts. These ecclesiastical plays, rooted in the 10th-century Officium Stellae, involved and portraying the star-led , blending scripture with emerging hagiographic legends of the Magi's royal origins and martyrdom. Such performances reinforced the Magi's role as witnesses to Christ's divinity, influencing seasonal rituals like home blessings mimicking their visit. Regional customs evolved from these medieval practices, varying by locale while centering on Epiphany processions and symbolic gift-giving. In German-speaking regions of , the Sternsinger tradition emerged from 16th-century records but traces to medieval star-singing plays, where children dressed as the visit homes, sing carols, inscribe doorways with chalk markings (e.g., "20+C+M+B+25" for the year and initials), and collect for charity, invoking blessings against misfortune. In , the galette des rois—a circular shared on Epiphany—echoes the 's crowns through a hidden or figurine designating a "," a custom documented from the 14th century onward. Spanish regions feature elaborate cabalgatas parades of the Reyes Magos distributing sweets, adapting medieval pageantry to public festivity. These practices, tied to the 's narrative, persisted as folk expressions of faith, often blending with local agrarian rites for prosperity.

Modern Observances and Symbols

The feast of Epiphany, observed annually on by many Christian denominations, commemorates the Magi's presentation of gifts to , marking the end of the season in liturgical calendars. In Catholic and Orthodox traditions, it includes Masses and blessings invoking the Magi's journey, with some parishes reenacting the adoration scene through pageants. Secular adaptations persist in and , where public holidays feature parades depicting the Magi on camels or floats, as seen in Madrid's procession attended by over a million spectators since its revival in the 19th century. In German-speaking regions, the Sternsinger custom involves children dressed as the visiting homes from late through Epiphany, singing carols, reciting blessings, and marking with chalk inscriptions of "" (representing Caspar, , and Balthasar) alongside the year and a , symbolizing . Organized by Catholic youth groups like Das Wohltätigkeitswerk "Sterntaler," the tradition raises funds for global child aid, with approximately 500,000 participants collecting millions of euros annually in recent years. Hispanic cultures emphasize Día de los Reyes Magos, where families exchange gifts on , mimicking the Magi's offerings, and share de reyes—a circular sweet bread embedded with figurines of the infant , obligating the finder to host a feast. In , the day functions as the primary gift-giving occasion, with traditions rooted in Spanish colonial influence but adapted to include community feasts and toy distributions for underprivileged children. Similar observances occur in and other Latin American nations, often featuring bonfires or piñatas shaped like stars. Symbols of the Magi endure in contemporary iconography, including the represented in holiday lights and nativity displays, and the three gifts—gold for kingship, frankincense for divinity, and myrrh for mortality—replicated in ceremonial processions or as educational props in . These elements appear in modern media, such as animated films and greeting cards, preserving the narrative's emphasis on recognition of Christ's birth without altering core biblical motifs.

Representations in Art and Media

Iconography in Visual Arts

The earliest known depictions of the appear in Roman catacomb frescoes from the third century, such as those in the , where they are shown as two or three figures approaching the Virgin and Child with gifts, marking one of the first narrative scenes in predating most other New Testament representations. These figures typically wear Phrygian caps and Persian-style robes, reflecting Eastern origins and associations with Zoroastrian priests or astrologers, without individualized names or crowns. In fifth- and sixth-century Byzantine mosaics, such as those in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna and the Arch of Epiphany in Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, the Magi are standardized as three kings processing in tribute, often barefoot and led by a star, emphasizing their role as gentile witnesses to Christ's divinity. The Ravenna examples, dating to around 526–556 CE, portray them in dynamic procession with camels and gifts visible, blending imperial tribute motifs with Christian typology. By the medieval period in , iconography evolved to include distinct ages and ethnicities for the three —typically an elderly Caucasian, a middle-aged Asian, and a young African—symbolizing universality, with crowns and elaborate processions incorporating contemporary European and exotic elements. In paintings, such as Gentile da Fabriano's Adoration of the Magi (1423), the scene expands into opulent corteges with detailed landscapes, animals, and self-portraits of donors, highlighting technical virtuosity and patronage. Works like and Fra Filippo Lippi's Adoration of the Magi (c. 1440–1460) maintain the kneeling presentation of gold, , and while integrating linear perspective and luminous color. Later Baroque examples, including ' Adoration of the Magi (c. 1634), emphasize dramatic lighting and emotional intensity, with the in dynamic poses offering gifts amid a crowded stable, reflecting emphasis on sensory engagement. These depictions consistently symbolize kingship (gold), divinity (), and mortality (), evolving from sparse catacomb symbols to elaborate theological narratives across centuries.

Depictions in Literature and Music

The Revelation of the Magi, an 8th-century Syriac Christian apocryphal text preserved in a manuscript at the , expands the biblical narrative by purporting to be a firsthand account from the , describing their origins in "Mysterious Shir" (a mythical eastern land) and their prophetic knowledge of the star's appearance across generations. The text claims the , numbering twelve rather than three, undertook the journey as descendants of , bearing gifts symbolizing divine attributes, and encountered multiple times, including post-resurrection. Henry van Dyke's novella (1895) introduces Artaban, a fictional fourth magus from Persia who sells his treasures to aid the needy en route to , arriving too late for the adoration but exemplifying themes of sacrificial over observance. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem "" (1878) depicts Melchior, , and Baltasar riding from afar under the guiding star, emphasizing their awe upon finding the child and offering , , and in a rhythmic, style evoking medieval ballads. In music, the carol "We Three Kings of Orient Are" (originally "The Quest of the Magi"), composed by Episcopal priest John Henry Hopkins Jr. in 1857 for a pageant at the General Theological Seminary in New York, portrays the Magi's journey, star-guided quest, and presentation of gifts as symbols of kingship, divinity, and suffering, with each verse focusing on a king and his offering before converging in a affirming Christ's . The piece, structured as a in 3/4 time, became widely popularized in the 20th century through recordings and liturgical use on Epiphany (), the feast commemorating the Magi's visit. Renaissance polyphonic compositions for Epiphany masses, such as Jacobus Gallus's Omnes de Saba venient (c. ), draw from to evoke the Magi's tribute from and the Isles, featuring rich choral textures that symbolize the universal kings' homage to the infant Christ. Medieval carols and modern works like the "March of the Magi Kings," a programmatic orchestral or choral depiction of the procession, further illustrate the theme in processional forms suitable for Epiphany processions or pageants. The Biblical Magi appear in several films that dramatize the Nativity narrative from the Gospel of Matthew, often emphasizing their journey guided by the star, consultation with Herod, and presentation of gifts to the infant . In (2006), directed by , the Magi are depicted as scholarly astronomers from the East who detect anomalous celestial alignments, prompting their travel to where they inquire of King Herod about the newborn king before proceeding to . The film portrays their quest as intertwined with Mary's journey, culminating in the adoration scene, though it omits some scriptural details like Herod's reference to Micah's . More recent productions incorporate musical and comedic elements. (2023), a Christian musical directed by , features the Magi—played by as , as Balthazar, and as —as humorous travelers who perform songs and dances, including a comedic routine in Herod's court, while pursuing the prophesied king signaled by the star. The film's lighthearted tone contrasts with traditional solemnity, blending pop songs with faith-based themes, and includes a servant girl accompanying the group. Dedicated films centering the Magi include The 3 Kings (2000), a British production that follows the three wise men—Melchior, , and Balthazar—facing perils and intrigue en route to to honor Christ's birth, framing their story as an adventurous quest aligned with Matthew's account. Similarly, (2003), a Spanish animated feature, presents , , and Balthazar as magician-kings on a whimsical search for the divine child, incorporating humor and fantasy elements while adhering to the core biblical events of star-following and gift-giving. In broader epic cinema, the Magi feature in opening sequences of Christ-centered films like the 1959 Ben-Hur, where their procession and adoration underscore themes of divine kingship, linking to the protagonist's later encounters with . The 2003 Ben-Hur miniseries also includes the 's arrival, drawing from Lew Wallace's novel where one , Balthasar, interacts with the narrative's Jewish prince. These portrayals often amplify the 's exotic origins and astrological motivations, though artistic liberties vary, such as specifying names or numbers not explicit in scripture. In television and animation, depictions tend toward family-oriented retellings. The animated special The Three Wise Men (2014, Spanish production) reimagines the journey from one Magi's viewpoint, focusing on faith and perseverance amid trials, suitable for younger audiences with simplified theology. Popular culture occasionally invokes the Magi trope metaphorically, as in holiday specials or parodies, but direct biblical adaptations remain predominant in faith-based media, avoiding secular reinterpretations that diverge from the Matthean text.

References

  1. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:1-2&version=ESV
  2. https://www.worldhistory.org/Magi/
  3. https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2022/12/22/who-were-the-magi/
  4. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:7-12&version=ESV
  5. https://www.crossway.org/articles/who-were-the-magi-and-why-did-they-worship-jesus-matthew-2/
  6. https://www.equip.org/articles/matthew-and-the-magi/
  7. https://enduringword.com/bible-commentary/matthew-2/
  8. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/jesus-historical-jesus/why-did-the-magi-bring-gold-frankincense-and-myrrh/
  9. https://www.biblearchaeologyreport.com/2022/12/22/who-were-the-magi/
  10. https://time.com/5923009/three-kings-wisemen-history-magi-bible/
  11. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202%3A1-12&version=ESV
  12. https://bible.usccb.org/bible/matthew/2
  13. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202%3A1-12&version=NIV
  14. https://ehrmanblog.org/why-does-matthew-have-the-story-of-the-wise-men/
  15. https://tyndalehouse.com/2019/12/06/why-are-jesus-birth-stories-different/
  16. https://www.gotquestions.org/Jesus-birth.html
  17. https://hermeneutics.stackexchange.com/questions/69627/why-were-the-magi-mentioned-of-in-the-gospel-of-mathew-but-not-in-luke-and-mark
  18. https://www.psephizo.com/biblical-studies/why-do-matthew-and-luke-offer-different-birth-narratives/
  19. https://bible.org/seriespage/3-visit-wise-men-matthew-21-12
  20. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+2%3A1-3&version=ESV
  21. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+2%3A7-8&version=ESV
  22. https://artandlifenotes.wordpress.com/2014/12/15/why-the-magi-did-not-follow-the-star-to-bethlehem-and-why-it-matters/
  23. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+2%3A9-11&version=ESV
  24. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+2%3A12-16&version=ESV
  25. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+2%3A1%2C13-15&version=ESV
  26. https://ebible.com/questions/11837-where-and-when-did-the-wise-men-meet-jesus
  27. https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/34889/did-jesus-visit-the-temple-before-the-wise-men-came
  28. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+2%3A1-12&version=ESV
  29. https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/magians/
  30. https://www.khouse.org/personal_update/articles/2021/history-magi
  31. http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/bible/themistocles_magi.html
  32. https://www.biblicaltraining.org/library/magi
  33. https://tyndalehouse.com/2024/12/06/magi/
  34. https://www.seenandunseen.com/magi-where-did-wise-men-come
  35. https://www.etymonline.com/word/magi
  36. http://biblehub.com/greek/3097.htm
  37. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+2&version=NIV
  38. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+2&version=NASB2020
  39. https://zondervanacademic.com/blog/whats-a-magi-and-are-they-wise-matt-21-mondays-with-mounce-277
  40. https://earlychristiantexts.com/the-magi-in-the-gospel-of-matthew/
  41. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/magi/
  42. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Magus
  43. https://shop.gty.org/library/bibleqnas-library/QA0207/who-were-the-magi
  44. https://research.rug.nl/files/697737680/Matthew_the_Parthians_and_the_Magi.pdf
  45. https://stream.org/the-mysterious-magi/
  46. https://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/priests/index.htm
  47. https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-important-events/slaughter-magi-ancient-persia-genocide-annual-holiday-0010291
  48. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:11&version=KJV
  49. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:1-11&version=KJV
  50. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:11&version=ESV
  51. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:11&version=NIV
  52. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:11&version=NASB
  53. https://www.academia.edu/129092794/The_Gifts_of_the_Magi_Were_Meant_for_the_Mother
  54. https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/roundtable/brief-history-frankincense
  55. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276146708320446
  56. https://juliamartins.co.uk/the-medicine-behind-the-nativity-gifts-frankincense-and-myrrh-revisited
  57. https://www.workingpreacher.org/commentaries/revised-common-lectionary/epiphany-of-our-lord/commentary-on-matthew-21-12-8
  58. https://reformedmargins.com/the-irony-of-the-magi/
  59. https://www.unreached.network/isaiah-60/
  60. https://answersingenesis.org/christmas/we-three-kings/
  61. https://www.youthpastortheologian.com/blog/who-were-the-magi-and-why-do-they-matter
  62. https://regehrlein.wordpress.com/2015/12/27/the-visit-by-the-magi-in-matthew-21-12/
  63. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-topics/new-testament/witnessing-the-divine/
  64. https://www.workingpreacher.org/commentaries/revised-common-lectionary/epiphany-of-our-lord/commentary-on-matthew-21-12-5
  65. https://biblehub.com/study/numbers/24-17.htm
  66. https://www.gotquestions.org/Magi-saw-His-star-in-the-east.html
  67. https://icr.edu/when-they-saw-star
  68. https://pastortravislv.com/2013/12/26/the-magi-a-prediction-fulfilled-and-a-promise-made-isaiah-606-matthew-211/
  69. https://sundaymorninggreekblog.com/2023/02/27/a-pastors-epiphany-about-epiphany-matthew-21-12-isaiah-601-6-psalm-72/
  70. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2024/01/matthew-make-up-magi-dwight-longenecker.html
  71. https://www.cslewisinstitute.org/resources/prophecies-kings-will-bring-the-messiah-gifts/
  72. https://www.facebook.com/groups/489970239006323/posts/1299954031341269/
  73. https://answersingenesis.org/jesus/who-were-magi-who-visited-jesus/
  74. https://catholicweekly.com.au/herod-and-the-magi/
  75. https://www.catholic.com/magazine/print-edition/mysteries-of-the-magi
  76. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:1-12&version=ESV
  77. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-topics/new-testament/we-three-kings-of-orient-are/
  78. https://www.christianitytoday.com/2016/12/magi-wise-men-or-kings-its-complicated/
  79. https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/en/2023/12/from-magi-to-kings/
  80. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09527a.htm
  81. https://www.assyrianculture.org/stories/who-were-the-biblical-magi-in-the-syriac-christian-tradition-heres-what-we-know
  82. https://soh.church/who-were-the-three-wise-men/
  83. https://www.lignoma.com/en/magazine/the-three-wise-kings/
  84. https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2020/dec/21/christmas-cards-star-baby-jesus-myrrh-mystery-balthasar-three-kings-black-art
  85. https://sarahemilybond.com/2020/01/12/the-story-of-the-black-king-among-the-magi/
  86. https://www.metmuseum.org/perspectives/exploring-black-magus-in-european-art
  87. https://dlongenecker1.medium.com/the-three-wise-men-history-or-myth-5762b1939ae6
  88. https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1000-1500/the-legend-of-the-three-kings-1483/
  89. https://www.christianiconography.info/goldenLegend/magi.htm
  90. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/style/1989/12/10/the-legend-of-the-three-kings/c58d1b2c-4615-47a9-be76-7ca057b7ed37/
  91. https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/88891/was-matthews-inclusion-of-the-story-of-the-magi-be-a-form-of-midrash-influenced
  92. https://dwightlongenecker.com/the-magi-and-the-historicity-of-matthew/
  93. https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/edcoll/9789004308473/B9789004308473_021.pdf
  94. https://dwightlongenecker.com/biblical-scholars-and-the-myth-of-the-magi/
  95. https://imageofgodinstitute.org/benedict-xvi-on-the-historicity-of-the-magi-and-star-from-guest-contributor-shane-kapler/
  96. https://tyndalebulletin.org/article/30475-the-star-of-bethlehem-a-comet-in-5-bc-and-the-date-of-christ-s-birth.pdf
  97. https://britastro.org/journal_contents_ite/the-star-that-stopped-the-star-of-bethlehem-the-comet-of-5-bce
  98. https://www.patheos.com/blogs/lostinaoneacrewood/2018/12/10/magi-biblical-historical-criticism/
  99. https://biblearchaeology.org/research/new-testament-era/2411-the-slaughter-of-the-innocents-historical-fact-or-legendary-fiction
  100. https://scholarworks.merrimack.edu/books/21/
  101. https://www.richardcarrier.info/archives/294
  102. https://www.reddit.com/r/AskBibleScholars/comments/zcifot/the_three_wise_men_did_they_exist/
  103. https://www.quora.com/Are-there-any-historical-records-other-than-the-Bible-of-the-Magi-who-visited-Jesus
  104. https://historum.com/t/the-magi-and-herod.114648/
  105. https://abcnews.go.com/Travel/wise-men-ancient-text-differs-bible-tale-magi/story?id=12460820
  106. https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2024/01/three-wise-men-really-exist-dwight-longenecker.html
  107. https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/35171/the-history-of-the-epiphany-heres-what-you-need-to-know
  108. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05504c.htm
  109. https://www.goarch.org/-/the-feast-of-epiphany-the-feast-of-lights
  110. https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=149
  111. https://smarthistory.org/nicholas-verdun-shrine-three-kings-cologne/
  112. https://www.koelner-dom.de/en/tour/cologne-cathedral-and-the-jews/the-shrine-of-the-magi
  113. https://artofthemiddleages.com/s/main/item/696
  114. https://www.medievalists.net/2016/01/epiphany-three-kings-day/
  115. https://www.omnesmag.com/en/news/sternsinger-tradition/
  116. https://germangirlinamerica.com/sternsinger-in-germany-children-helping-children-with-song/
  117. https://frenchmoments.eu/epiphany-in-france-lepiphanie-en-france/
  118. https://www.holyart.com/blog/christmas/feast-of-the-magi-traditions-in-italy-and-europe/
  119. https://www.familysearch.org/en/blog/a-complete-guide-to-three-kings-day-and-epiphany
  120. https://hallow.com/blog/feast-of-the-epiphany/
  121. https://www.enforex.com/culture/reyes-magos.html
  122. https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/256380/tens-of-thousands-of-star-singers-continue-the-tradition-of-bringing-christ-s-blessings-for-the-new-year
  123. https://parade.com/248853/yvettemarquez/what-is-dia-de-los-reyes-three-kings-day-and-how-do-you-celebrate-it/
  124. https://blog.xcaret.com/en/three-kings-day-mexican-tradition/
  125. https://college.holycross.edu/projects/museo_rivera/festivals/threekings.html
  126. https://artuk.org/discover/stories/depicting-the-magi-origins-gifts-and-representing-men-of-colour
  127. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/people-in-the-bible/the-three-magi/
  128. https://www.walksinrome.com/blog/images-of-the-adoration-of-the-magi-in-rome
  129. https://russianicons.wordpress.com/2017/12/15/eastern-wise-guys/
  130. http://projects.mcah.columbia.edu/medieval-architecture/htm/sw/ma_sw_gloss_adormagi.htm
  131. https://www.christianiconography.info/staMariaMaggiore/epiphanyArch.html
  132. https://ima.princeton.edu/2018/12/21/a-wise-guy-eh/
  133. https://www.afterconstantine.com/en/article/et-magi-antecedentsthe-adoration-of-the-magi-in-ravenna-art-between-late-antiquity-to-early-middle-ages/
  134. https://drrichardstemp.com/2021/01/06/118-epiphany-in-ravenna/
  135. https://www.uffizi.it/en/artworks/adoration-of-the-magi
  136. https://smarthistory.org/gentile-da-fabriano-adoration-of-the-magi/
  137. https://www.nga.gov/artworks/41581-adoration-magi
  138. https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/adoration-of-the-magi/
  139. https://www.christianiconography.info/magi.html
  140. https://www.amazon.com/Mystery-Magi-Quest-Identify-Three/dp/1621576299
  141. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/57830/the-three-kings
  142. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0vkSGAXlyT0
  143. https://seenandheard-international.com/2016/12/the-sixteen-explore-the-journey-of-the-magi-through-timeless-music/
  144. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GU1_ZPow-pg
  145. https://decentfilms.com/reviews/nativitystory
  146. https://meridianstar.com/2006/12/06/the-nativity-story/
  147. https://variety.com/2023/film/reviews/journey-to-bethlehem-review-1235786778/
  148. https://rogersmovienation.com/2023/11/11/movie-review-herod-and-the-magi-get-all-the-laughs-on-the-journey-to-bethlehem/
  149. https://petertchattaway.substack.com/p/watch-the-magi-do-musical-comedy
  150. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0306427/
  151. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0400771/
  152. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m5JVh_uo8y8
  153. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/tv-reviews/the-three-wise-men
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.