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Clockwise from top-left: the James Webb Space Telescope is launched; protesters in Yangon, Myanmar, following the coup d'état; a civil demonstration against the October coup in Sudan; supporters of then United States president Donald Trump stormed the country's Capitol in a failed attempt to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election; the container ship Ever Given gets stuck in the Suez Canal, blocking international shipping for six days; the 2020 Summer Olympics are held in Tokyo, Japan; the Ingenuity helicopter after deployment on the Martian surface by the Mars Perseverance rover; Taliban fighters on a captured Humvee following the fall of Kabul at the end of the War in Afghanistan.

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2021 by topic
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2021 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar2021
MMXXI
Ab urbe condita2774
Armenian calendar1470
ԹՎ ՌՆՀ
Assyrian calendar6771
Baháʼí calendar177–178
Balinese saka calendar1942–1943
Bengali calendar1427–1428
Berber calendar2971
British Regnal year69 Eliz. 2 – 70 Eliz. 2
Buddhist calendar2565
Burmese calendar1383
Byzantine calendar7529–7530
Chinese calendar庚子年 (Metal Rat)
4718 or 4511
    — to —
辛丑年 (Metal Ox)
4719 or 4512
Coptic calendar1737–1738
Discordian calendar3187
Ethiopian calendar2013–2014
Hebrew calendar5781–5782
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat2077–2078
 - Shaka Samvat1942–1943
 - Kali Yuga5121–5122
Holocene calendar12021
Igbo calendar1021–1022
Iranian calendar1399–1400
Islamic calendar1442–1443
Japanese calendarReiwa 3
(令和３年)
Javanese calendar1954–1955
Juche calendar110
Julian calendarGregorian minus 13 days
Korean calendar4354
Minguo calendarROC 110
民國110年
Nanakshahi calendar553
Thai solar calendar2564
Tibetan calendarལྕགས་ཕོ་བྱི་བ་ལོ་
(male Iron-Rat)
2147 or 1766 or 994
    — to —
ལྕགས་མོ་གླང་ལོ་
(female Iron-Ox)
2148 or 1767 or 995
Unix time1609459200 – 1640995199

2021 (MMXXI) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar, the 2021st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 21st year of the 3rd millennium and the 21st century, and the 2nd year of the 2020s decade.

Like the year 2020, 2021 was also heavily defined by the COVID-19 pandemic, due to the emergence of multiple COVID-19 variants. The major global rollout of COVID-19 vaccines, which began at the end of 2020, continued in 2021. Most major events scheduled for 2020 that were postponed due to the pandemic were hosted in 2021, including the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference (held in Glasgow, Scotland), Expo 2020 (held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates), and sporting events such as UEFA Euro 2020 (held across 11 European countries), the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics (both held in Tokyo, Japan), as well as the 2021 Copa América (held in Brazil).[1]

2021 additionally witnessed numerous advancements in space exploration, particularly by the United Arab Emirates, NASA and SpaceX, including the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope.

Civil unrest grew in 2021, with coups occurring in Sudan, Myanmar, Mali and Guinea, and insurrections occurring in Armenia and the United States.

Events

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January

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February

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March

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April

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May

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June

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July

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August

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September

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Military parade in Kaloum, a day after the coup

October

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November

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December

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Births and deaths

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Main pages: Category:2021 births and Deaths in 2021

Nobel Prizes

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Nobel medal
Nobel medal

References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

2021

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2021 was the second full year of the , which continued to exert profound global impacts through high mortality rates, economic disruptions, and measures, even as campaigns administered billions of doses worldwide to mitigate severe outcomes. The year saw approximately 3.5 million reported deaths globally, alongside the emergence of the Delta variant that drove renewed surges in cases and hospitalizations in many regions. efforts, authorized for emergency use starting in late 2020, accelerated in 2021, with data indicating they averted an estimated 14.4 million deaths by reducing transmission and severity, though debates persisted over against variants and mandates. Geopolitically, 2021 featured the United States' completion of its troop withdrawal from Afghanistan on August 30, following agreements negotiated under prior administrations, resulting in the swift collapse of the Afghan National Government and Taliban resurgence, accompanied by chaotic evacuations from Kabul. Domestically in the U.S., the January 6 breach of the Capitol occurred amid efforts to certify the 2020 election results, involving protesters entering the building and clashing with law enforcement, as documented in congressional reviews. Supply chain vulnerabilities were highlighted by the six-day blockage of the Suez Canal in March by the container ship Ever Given, which delayed an estimated $9 billion in daily global trade and exacerbated post-pandemic logistics strains. Other notable developments included military coups in and , Barbados' transition to republic status, the delayed Tokyo Olympics proceeding under strict protocols, and the launch of the toward year's end, advancing astronomical observation capabilities. These events underscored 2021's themes of recovery from crisis, institutional transitions, and technological progress amid persistent instability.

Events

January


On January 1, the reached 20 million confirmed cases amid a winter surge driven by increased transmission and holiday gatherings. The formally exited the European Union's and , ending the transition period and implementing new trade barriers with the EU bloc. On January 5, Georgia held runoff elections for its two U.S. seats after no candidate secured a in 2020. Democrat defeated Republican with 50.6% of the vote to 49.4%, while Democrat defeated Republican with 51.0% to 49.0%, granting Democrats a 50-50 with Vice President-elect Kamala Harris's tie-breaking vote. These outcomes shifted control from Republicans, who had held it since 2015, enabling the incoming Biden administration greater legislative leverage. On January 6, thousands of supporters of President Donald Trump rallied in Washington, D.C., protesting the certification of Joe Biden's electoral victory amid unsubstantiated claims of widespread election fraud, which had been rejected by courts and state officials. Trump addressed the crowd, repeating fraud allegations and calling for a march to the Capitol to "peacefully and patriotically make your voices heard." The rally escalated as a mob breached security barriers, entered the Capitol building, and clashed with law enforcement, disrupting the joint session of Congress certifying electoral votes. The breach resulted in five deaths: one Capitol Police officer from injuries sustained, one protester shot by police, and three others from medical emergencies among the crowd. Congress reconvened that evening under enhanced security and completed certification, confirming Biden's 306-232 electoral win. The event prompted Trump's second impeachment by the House on January 13 for incitement of insurrection, though Senate acquittal followed in February. On January 20, was inaugurated as the 46th , with sworn in as the 49th , becoming the first woman, first Black American, and first person of South Asian descent to hold the office. immediately issued executive orders reversing several Trump-era policies, including rejoining the on and halting the Keystone XL pipeline. Throughout January, the global intensified, with the U.S. recording over 95,000 deaths—the highest monthly toll to date—exceeding December's figure, as new variants emerged and vaccination efforts accelerated but lagged behind case surges. By month's end, worldwide cases exceeded 100 million, with vaccines from Pfizer-BioNTech and distributed in limited quantities primarily to high-risk groups. On January 7, surpassed as the world's richest individual, with a of $186 billion driven by Tesla's performance.

February

On February 1, the Armed Forces, known as the , seized power in a , detaining State Counsellor , President , and other officials from the (NLD), which had won a landslide in the November 2020 elections. The military, led by Senior General , claimed the election was marred by widespread fraud and irregularities, justifying the imposition of a one-year under Vice President , who transferred power to the . The action halted Myanmar's decade-long transition toward democracy following the 2011 reforms, prompting immediate international condemnation from the , , and , though and expressed support or restraint. The coup triggered mass and protests across , with millions participating in strikes and demonstrations by mid-February, met by escalating violence including arrests and lethal force that killed dozens. Independent observers noted the 's pretext of lacked substantiation from international monitors, who had deemed the vote largely free and despite some documented issues, underscoring the Tatmadaw's historical dominance and reluctance to fully cede control. From February 11 to 20, Winter Storm Uri struck Texas and parts of the southern United States, delivering record-low temperatures as cold as -2°F in Dallas, heavy snowfall up to 6 inches in some areas, and freezing precipitation that crippled infrastructure. The storm caused the failure of the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) grid, leading to rolling blackouts that left over 4.5 million customers without power for days amid subfreezing conditions, exacerbating water shortages from burst pipes and resulting in at least 223 deaths statewide, primarily from hypothermia and carbon monoxide poisoning. Economic damages exceeded $195 billion, marking it as the costliest weather disaster in Texas history and highlighting systemic vulnerabilities in the state's isolated grid, which prioritized renewable intermittency and deregulation over winterization, as later investigations by ERCOT and federal regulators confirmed. The U.S. convened the second impeachment trial of former President on February 9, charging him with incitement of insurrection for his remarks preceding the Capitol breach. managers presented video of the violence and Trump's statements urging supporters to "fight like hell," while Trump's defense argued was unconstitutional post-tenure and that his speech constituted protected political rhetoric. On February 13, the voted 57-43 to acquit Trump on the single article, with seven Republicans joining Democrats but falling short of the two-thirds threshold required for conviction under Article I of the . Ongoing vaccination efforts in the United States administered over 66 million doses by late February, prioritizing healthcare workers and elderly amid supply constraints and distribution bottlenecks, though the storm delayed shipments and appointments nationwide. The Pfizer-BioNTech and vaccines demonstrated efficacy rates of around 95% against symptomatic infection in real-world data from early recipients, supporting expanded eligibility to those over 65 in most states. Globally, the initiative began delivering initial doses to lower-income countries, though inequities persisted with wealthier nations securing the majority of supplies.

March

Protests against Myanmar's military coup of February 1 intensified throughout March, with security forces employing lethal force against demonstrators. By early March, the death toll from the crackdown reached at least 61, according to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on human rights in Myanmar. On March 14, in Yangon's Hlaing Tharyar industrial zone, junta troops and police encircled protesters, opening fire and killing dozens in what became known as the Hlaing Tharyar Massacre; security forces used live ammunition, grenades, and slingshots against crowds demanding the release of detained leader Aung San Suu Kyi. Amnesty International documented the deployment of notorious battalions equipped with assault rifles and other weaponry to suppress the civil disobedience movement, which included strikes by workers and widespread participation across ethnic groups. In the United States, two mass shootings occurred within a week. On March 16, 21-year-old Robert Aaron Long killed eight people at three spas in the metropolitan area; six victims were women of Asian descent, prompting initial concerns of anti-Asian bias amid rising attacks during the , though Long attributed the attacks to his personal struggles with sex addiction and told authorities the shootings were not racially motivated. Long, who surrendered to police after the rampage spanning Cherokee County and , faced state charges, with federal enhancements pursued later. Six days later, on March 22, Ahmad Al Aliwi Alissa, 21, carried out a shooting at a supermarket in , killing ten people, including a responding ; Alissa, who had a history of mental health issues, used a legally purchased AR-15-style and was charged with multiple counts of first-degree . The faced a major disruption when the Ever Given, a 400-meter-long vessel operated by Evergreen Marine, ran aground on March 23 due to strong winds and a sandstorm, becoming wedged across the narrow and halting all traffic in one of the world's busiest shipping routes. The blockage stranded over 400 vessels and delayed an estimated $400 million in goods per hour, with total trade losses reaching billions over the six-day obstruction until the ship was refloated on March 29 through combined efforts of dredgers, tugboats, and ballast adjustments. The incident underscored vulnerabilities in global supply chains, already strained by pandemic-related disruptions, as the canal handles about 12% of world trade. Amid the ongoing , significant vaccination milestones were achieved. The administered its 100 millionth dose on March 19, reflecting accelerated rollout of Pfizer-BioNTech, , and under the Biden administration's push for equitable distribution. Globally, new cases rose for a fifth consecutive week, exceeding 3.8 million reported infections, driven by variants and uneven access, as noted in epidemiological updates. France imposed a new nationwide on March 31, closing schools for three weeks in response to surging infections.

April

On April 9, and consort to Queen Elizabeth II, died at at the age of 99, following a month of hospitalization for an infection and heart procedure. His death marked the end of a 73-year marriage and prompted a period of national mourning in the , with limited ceremonial arrangements due to restrictions. On April 14, U.S. President announced the complete withdrawal of American troops from by September 11, 2021, extending the timeline set by the Trump administration's February agreement with the while citing the need to end America's longest war after 20 years and over 2,400 U.S. military deaths. The decision shifted focus to over-the-horizon counterterrorism capabilities, amid concerns from military leaders about Taliban resurgence and risks to Afghan allies. On April 19, NASA's Ingenuity helicopter achieved the first powered, controlled flight on another planet during the Mars Perseverance mission, hovering 3 meters above the surface for 39 seconds in the Jezero Crater. This demonstration validated vertical flight in Mars' thin atmosphere, paving the way for future aerial exploration to scout terrain inaccessible to rovers. April 20 saw two major developments: In the United States, former Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin was convicted by a Hennepin County jury on charges of second-degree unintentional murder, third-degree murder, and second-degree manslaughter for kneeling on George Floyd's neck for 9 minutes and 29 seconds during an arrest on May 25, 2020, an act ruled by medical examiners as causing Floyd's death by cardiopulmonary arrest due to restraint and neck compression. The verdict, reached after 10 hours of deliberation by a diverse 12-person jury, followed testimony from over 45 witnesses including medical experts attributing Floyd's death to police actions rather than solely drug intoxication or heart disease. Concurrently in Chad, President Idriss Déby, who had ruled since seizing power in a 1990 coup, died from wounds sustained while commanding troops against Fact rebels near the Libyan border, ending his 30-year tenure marked by authoritarian governance and key roles in regional counterterrorism against Boko Haram and other jihadists. The army declared a transitional military council led by Déby's son, Mahamat, suspending the constitution and promising elections in 18 months amid risks of instability in the Sahel.

May

On May 1, reported a record 401,993 new cases in a single day amid its second wave, driven by the Delta variant and strained healthcare infrastructure, including shortages of oxygen and hospital beds. The wave, peaking in early May with over 400,000 daily cases, resulted in estimates far exceeding official figures, with independent analyses suggesting underreporting by factors of 3 to 10 to limited testing and overwhelmed cremation facilities. By month's end, had administered over 200 million doses but faced supply constraints, exporting vaccines earlier despite domestic needs. On May 7, the , which supplies 45% of the U.S. East Coast's fuel, shut down operations following a attack by the DarkSide group, originating from a compromised VPN account without . The incident disrupted fuel distribution for six days, leading to , gasoline shortages in 17 states, and price spikes up to 25 cents per gallon in affected areas; the company paid a 4.4 million dollar , later partially recovered by the FBI. This highlighted vulnerabilities in , prompting on cybersecurity and scrutiny of isolation practices. Tensions escalated in the Middle East on May 10 when Hamas launched rockets from Gaza toward Israel in response to clashes at Jerusalem's Al-Aqsa Mosque during Ramadan, prompting Israel's Operation Guardian of the Walls, which involved airstrikes killing 256 in Gaza, including 66 children, over 11 days. The conflict displaced over 72,000 Palestinians and drew international condemnation for civilian casualties, with Hamas firing over 4,000 rockets and Israel intercepting 90% via Iron Dome; a ceasefire took effect on May 21 after U.S. mediation. Casualty figures varied by source, with Gaza's Health Ministry reporting higher numbers unverified independently due to restricted access. Other notable events included widespread protests in starting May 1 against a bill, resulting in at least 26 deaths amid police clashes and leading to the bill's withdrawal. In space exploration, SpaceX's Crew-2 mission launched on May 5, successfully docking the first operational capsule with international partners to the ISS. In the U.S., the CDC updated guidance on May 13, allowing fully vaccinated individuals to forgo masks indoors in most settings, reflecting emerging data on vaccine efficacy against transmission.

June

On June 6, held the second round of its , pitting leftist teacher and union leader of the Peru Libre party against conservative of ; with nearly all votes counted by mid-month, Castillo held a slim lead of about 50,000 votes, prompting Fujimori to challenge the results on grounds of alleged irregularities, though electoral authorities upheld the tally. The European Football Championship, branded as Euro 2020 despite the postponement, began on June 11 across 11 host cities in , featuring 24 national teams in a format delayed by the ; the tournament ran through July 11, drawing millions of viewers amid strict health protocols. From June 11 to 13, leaders of the nations convened in , , , where they endorsed a global initiative to distribute one billion doses to low-income countries by year-end, reaffirmed commitments to counter China's economic practices, and advanced discussions on infrastructure investment via the Build Back Better World partnership as an alternative to China's . On June 13, of the party was sworn in as Israel's after his diverse eight-party coalition secured a 60-59 confidence vote, ousting after 12 consecutive years in power; , a former aide and advocate for annexation, agreed to serve two years before yielding to of . The NATO summit occurred on June 14 in Brussels, where allies endorsed a new strategic concept emphasizing competition with Russia and China, enhanced defense spending targets, and support for Ukraine; U.S. President Joe Biden reaffirmed transatlantic unity post-Afghanistan withdrawal plans. On June 16, Biden met Russian President Vladimir Putin in Geneva for talks on arms control, cybersecurity, and Ukraine, yielding no major breakthroughs but agreements to resume strategic stability dialogue and return ambassadors amid strained relations. President Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law on June 17, establishing June 19 as a federal holiday commemorating the 1865 emancipation announcement in , and the end of in the U.S.; the legislation passed unanimously in the following approval. In response to Belarus's May 23 diversion of to Minsk for the arrest of opposition journalist , the U.S., , , and imposed coordinated sanctions on June 21 targeting Belarusian officials, entities, and aviation bans, escalating economic pressure on President Alexander Lukashenko's regime. At 1:22 a.m. EDT on June 24, the 12-story Champlain Towers South in , partially collapsed, killing 98 of its 136 residents and prompting investigations into structural failures like deterioration and pool deck issues; efforts lasted over a week amid concerns over adjacent buildings.

July

On July 7, Haitian President was assassinated in an attack on his private residence in by a group of about 28 armed men, many of whom spoke English and French and claimed to be from the . The assailants, including Colombian mercenaries and Haitian-Americans later charged in the U.S., killed and wounded his wife Martine; the plot involved plans to arrest and install an interim government, amid Haiti's ongoing instability from gang violence and disputed elections. The condemned the killing as "abhorrent" and called for justice. Widespread protests erupted across beginning July 11, marking the largest anti-government demonstrations since the 1959 revolution, driven by acute shortages of food, medicine, and electricity amid economic collapse and the . Thousands participated in over 50 cities, chanting for freedom and an end to rule, with amplifying calls via hashtags like #SOSCuba. The government responded with blackouts, mass arrests exceeding 1,300 people, and violent crackdowns, including beatings and politically motivated prosecutions under laws criminalizing "enemy propaganda." Catastrophic flooding struck from July 12-15, triggered by over 150 mm of rainfall in 24 hours in parts of , , and the , causing rivers like the Ahr to swell catastrophically. The disaster killed at least 243 people, with 196 deaths in alone—primarily in the Ahr Valley where inadequate warning systems and rapid water rise contributed to the toll—and 39 in . Damage exceeded €30 billion in , with landslides and infrastructure failures exacerbating losses. A persistent over the from late June into early July set numerous all-time temperature records, including 116°F (47°C) in , on June 28 and 121°F (49.4°C) in , on June 29, followed by wildfires that destroyed the town. The event, made at least 150 times more likely by human-induced , caused over 1,400 excess deaths across the region and strained power grids. On July 20, Blue Origin's New Shepard rocket completed its first crewed suborbital flight from , carrying founder , his brother Mark, aviator , and student to an altitude above the (100 km). The 11-minute mission, the company's inaugural with humans aboard, highlighted private amid competition from . The Tokyo Summer Olympics opened on July 23 after a year-long postponement due to the , proceeding under strict protocols with no spectators and limited athlete interactions. The led the medal tally with 113, followed by with 89, across 339 events; notable performances included U.S. gymnast withdrawing from several finals citing concerns. Global surface temperatures for July 2021 reached 0.93°C above the 20th-century average, marking it as the hottest month since records began in , per NOAA data incorporating land and ocean measurements. This exceeded prior records set in 2019 and , reflecting ongoing warming trends.

August

The in reached its culmination in August 2021, as insurgent forces captured the capital on August 15 following a swift offensive that overran provincial capitals in the preceding days. This collapse occurred after the completed most of its troop withdrawal, originally scheduled under the February 2020 Doha Agreement negotiated during the Trump administration and extended by President Biden to August 31. Afghan President fled the country amid the advance, enabling fighters to enter with minimal resistance from security forces. The fall of Kabul triggered a humanitarian crisis, with thousands of Afghans and foreign nationals converging on International Airport seeking evacuation. U.S.-led facilitated the airlift of over 120,000 people in the ensuing weeks, though scenes of desperation included civilians clinging to departing aircraft. On , an ISIS-K suicide bombing at the airport's Abbey Gate killed 13 U.S. service members and more than 170 Afghan civilians, marking the deadliest day for American forces in since 2011. The Biden administration concluded the evacuation on August 30, leaving behind an estimated 100-200 U.S. citizens and thousands of Afghan allies, as the consolidated power and declared the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan restored. In , the dominated global caseloads, with approximately 4.4 million new confirmed cases reported worldwide during the week of August 23-29. The U.S. granted full approval to the Pfizer-BioNTech for individuals aged 16 and older on August 23, shifting from and prompting expanded mandates, such as California's requirement for healthcare workers. The U.S. released an unclassified assessment on August 27 concluding that the virus most likely originated from natural exposure to an infected animal, though a lab leak remained plausible without consensus among agencies. Natural disasters struck multiple regions, including a 7.2-magnitude in on August 14 that killed 2,248 people, injured over 12,000, and displaced tens of thousands, exacerbating vulnerabilities from the prior year's political instability. In , opposition leader secured a landslide presidential victory on August 12, ending incumbent Edgar Lungu's tenure amid allegations of electoral irregularities by the ruling party.

September

On September 1, remnants of triggered catastrophic flash flooding across the Northeastern United States, particularly in and , where up to 9 inches of rain fell in hours, overwhelming basements, subways, and streets. The event resulted in at least 46 deaths in the area alone, with many victims drowning in illegal basement apartments amid failures in urban drainage infrastructure and emergency warnings. In Texas, , known as the Heartbeat Act, took effect the same day, prohibiting abortions after the detection of embryonic cardiac activity—typically around six weeks of gestation—through a novel enforcement mechanism allowing private citizens to sue providers or aiders for at least $10,000 per violation, while shielding defendants from liability for fetal viability. The gubernatorial occurred on September 14, where voters rejected the effort to remove Democratic by a margin of 61.9% to 38.1%, with Newsom securing over 7.4 million "no" votes amid high turnout driven by mail-in ballots and opposition to Republican-led initiatives. Internationally, the security pact was announced on September 15 by the leaders of , the , and the , committing to enhanced military cooperation including the provision of nuclear-powered submarines to , which prompted the abrupt cancellation of a $66 billion conventional submarine contract with and elicited strong diplomatic protests from over perceived betrayal of alliance trust. In , the unveiled an all-male interim government on September 7, composed exclusively of its members and excluding women or representatives from other ethnic groups, despite prior assurances of inclusivity, as the group consolidated control following the August U.S. withdrawal. On September 20, an 18-year-old student at Perm State University in carried out a , killing six people and wounding at least 28 others with a before being subdued by police; the attacker, who professed ideological grievances, later died from injuries sustained in the confrontation.

October

On October 3, the , a leak of nearly 12 million confidential documents from offshore service providers, were published by the , implicating over 330 politicians and public officials, including 35 current or former heads of state, in using secretive financial arrangements to hide assets worth billions. The revelations prompted investigations in multiple countries but faced criticism for lacking evidence of illegality in many cases, with some figures like Jordan's King Abdullah II defending their use as legitimate tax planning. The Nobel Prizes for 2021 were announced in early October, recognizing advancements in science, literature, peace, and economics. On October 4, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to David Julius and Ardem Patapoutian for their discoveries of receptors responsible for temperature and touch sensation, enabling understanding of how the nervous system converts physical stimuli into electrical signals. The Physics Prize on October 5 went to Syukuro Manabe and Klaus Hasselmann for modeling Earth's climate and linking rising temperatures to human activity, alongside Giorgio Parisi for contributions to complex systems theory. In Chemistry on October 6, Benjamin List and David W.C. MacMillan received the award for developing asymmetric organocatalysis, a method using metal-free small molecules to accelerate chemical reactions with high precision, impacting pharmaceutical synthesis. The Literature Prize on October 7 was given to for his exploration of colonialism's enduring effects on individuals and societies, drawing from his East African heritage. The Peace Prize on October 8 honored journalists of the and of for defending freedom of expression amid authoritarian pressures, with Ressa facing legal harassment over Rappler's reporting and Muratov funding independent media after colleague Anna Politkovskaya's 2006 assassination. The Economics Prize on October 11 was shared by for empirical analysis of labor markets, such as the minimum wage's employment effects, and and for methodological advances in from natural experiments. On October 6, the World Health Organization recommended the RTS,S/AS01 vaccine as the first against malaria, based on pilot programs in sub-Saharan Africa showing a 30% reduction in severe cases among children, though efficacy wanes over time and requires multiple doses alongside mosquito control. In the Czech Republic, parliamentary elections on October 8-9 resulted in a narrow victory for the center-right SPOLU coalition and the anti-corruption STAN-Pirates alliance, ousting Prime Minister Andrej Babiš's ANO party after eight years amid corruption allegations. Sudan's military seized power on October 25, detaining Prime Minister and dissolving the civilian-led transitional government, citing political deadlock but triggering widespread protests and international condemnation as a reversal of the 2019 post-Bashir. The coup leader, General , justified the move by accusing civilians of undermining security, though evidence pointed to military frustration over reforms limiting their influence. On October 30, transitioned to a , removing Queen Elizabeth II as head of state and installing Dame as its first president, with Prime Minister emphasizing sovereignty while retaining ties and a abolished via parliamentary vote. The summit in on October 30-31 committed to limiting global warming to 1.5°C, phasing down unabated power, and providing $100 billion annually in to developing nations, though specifics on enforcement remained vague amid criticisms of insufficient ambition relative to IPCC warnings.

November

The United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) convened in , , from November 1 to 13, hosting representatives from nearly 200 countries to negotiate advancements under the . The summit culminated in the , which for the first time explicitly called on nations to phase down unabated power and inefficient , while urging stronger commitments to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. Over 100 countries pledged to halt by 2030, and more than 40 nations agreed to transition away from , though critics noted the language's softening from "phase out" to "phase down" amid opposition from major coal producers like and . On November 1, the global death toll exceeded 5 million, according to data, amid ongoing vaccination efforts and variant concerns. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention approved the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine for children ages 5-11 on November 3, expanding eligibility to approximately 28 million young Americans based on data showing 90.7% efficacy against symptomatic disease. A terrorist attack in on November 2 killed at least 69 soldiers at a military camp in Inates, claimed by the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara, highlighting persistent jihadist threats in the . In the United States, a in , acquitted on November 19 of all charges, including two counts of first-degree intentional homicide and one count of attempted homicide, stemming from the fatal shootings of Joseph Rosenbaum and Anthony Huber, and the wounding of Gaige Grosskreutz during unrest on August 25, 2020; the defense successfully argued under Wisconsin law, supported by video evidence and witness testimony. On November 24, three white men—Travis McMichael, Gregory McMichael, and William "Roddie" Bryan—were convicted in a Georgia federal court of and other charges in the 2020 killing of Ahmaud Arbery, a 25-year-old Black man chased and shot while jogging; the verdict followed presentation of video footage and evidence of racial animus, with sentencing set for February 2022 under enhancements. Protests erupted across on November 21 against new restrictions, including lockdowns and vaccine mandates, resulting in clashes in cities like , , and , with at least one fatality in the from police gunfire during unrest. In , the government declared a nationwide on November 4 amid advances by Tigrayan forces toward , exacerbating the Tigray War that had displaced millions and caused famine warnings.

December

A struck the central and southern United States on December 10–11, generating at least 70 confirmed tornadoes across eight states, including multiple violent EF4 and EF3 tornadoes that caused widespread destruction. The event resulted in 89 fatalities, primarily in Kentucky where devastated Mayfield and caused the collapse of a candle factory, killing nine workers, and Edwardsville, Illinois, where six died in an Amazon warehouse; it remains the deadliest December tornado outbreak on record. Unusual December warmth and atmospheric instability fueled the supercell thunderstorms responsible. The , first identified in late November, accelerated its global spread throughout December, prompting renewed travel restrictions and public health measures in numerous countries. By December 14, the reported circulating in at least 77 nations with an unprecedented transmission rate, though early data suggested milder severity compared to prior variants in hospitalized cases from . The variant's numerous mutations raised concerns over vaccine efficacy, leading to booster campaigns and enhanced surveillance, while detections surged in , , and by mid-month. Geopolitical tensions between and intensified as Russian forces amassed over 90,000 troops near the border, prompting U.S. intelligence assessments of a potential large-scale offensive involving up to 175,000 personnel by early 2022. On December 17, issued formal demands to and the , including a ban on 's membership, withdrawal of alliance forces from , and restrictions on military deployments near Russian borders, framing them as prerequisites for de-escalation. Ukrainian and Western officials rejected the proposals as undermining sovereignty, while President asserted had "nowhere to retreat" amid the standoff. NASA's , a collaborative project with the and , launched successfully on December 25 aboard an rocket from , , marking a milestone in infrared astronomy to observe distant galaxies and exoplanets. The $10 billion observatory, equipped with a 6.5-meter primary mirror, unfolded its sunshield during transit to the Sun-Earth L2 Lagrange point, where it would conduct observations over its 10-year mission lifetime. On December 29, a federal jury in New York convicted Ghislaine Maxwell on five of six counts, including of a minor, for her role in recruiting and grooming underage girls for abuse by financier between 1994 and 2004. Prosecutors presented testimony from four victims detailing Maxwell's facilitation of Epstein's crimes, leading to her detention pending sentencing; she was acquitted on one charge of enticing a minor to travel for illegal sex acts. The verdict followed a month-long highlighting Epstein's network, with Maxwell maintaining her innocence and planning an appeal.

Public Health and Pandemic Response

Vaccine Rollouts and Efficacy Data

In the United States, the received (EUA) from the FDA on December 11, 2020, with initial doses administered starting December 14, 2020, primarily to healthcare workers; by January 2021, distribution expanded to priority groups amid supply constraints and cold-chain requirements. The Moderna vaccine followed with EUA on December 18, 2020, and the single-dose vaccine gained EUA on February 27, 2021, enabling broader rollout phases targeting the elderly and high-risk populations. Globally, the initiated the vaccine rollout on December 8, 2020, achieving over 10 million first doses by early February 2021, while launched a rapid nationwide campaign in December 2020, vaccinating nearly 50% of its population with at least one dose by March. By mid-2021, over 2 billion doses had been administered worldwide, though uneven distribution persisted, with high-income countries vaccinating faster than low-income ones. Clinical trials reported high efficacy against symptomatic COVID-19 from the original SARS-CoV-2 strain: the Pfizer-BioNTech mRNA vaccine demonstrated 95% efficacy in a phase 3 trial involving over 43,000 participants, with 162 cases in the placebo group versus 8 in the vaccine group.02183-8/fulltext) The Moderna mRNA vaccine showed 94.1% efficacy in its phase 3 trial of approximately 30,000 participants, reducing symptomatic infections from 185 in placebo to 11 in vaccinated. Adenovirus-vectored vaccines like exhibited 70-90% efficacy depending on dosing intervals, while reported 66% efficacy against moderate to severe disease in its multinational trial. These figures represented ; absolute risk reduction was lower (e.g., ~0.84% for ), reflecting low baseline infection rates in trials, though vaccines substantially lowered severe outcomes across groups. Early real-world data corroborated trial results but revealed waning protection against over time. In , following mass , effectiveness reached 94% against symptomatic disease and 92% against severe outcomes by March 2021, based on nationwide surveillance of over 5 million vaccinated individuals.02183-8/fulltext) A study of the vaccine showed 88% effectiveness against hospitalization persisting up to 6 months post-second dose, though protection against dropped from 90% initially to around 65% after 180 days.02183-8/fulltext) The emergence of the Delta variant in mid-2021 reduced two-dose efficacy against to 60-80% for mRNA vaccines, per data, but maintained 80-90% effectiveness against hospitalization and death. Transmission reduction was partial, with vaccinated individuals still shedding virus loads comparable to unvaccinated during Delta breakthrough . Safety monitoring via systems like VAERS identified rare adverse events: mRNA vaccines were linked to /, primarily in young males, with incidence rates of 12.6 cases per million second doses in males aged 12-17 per CDC analysis through June 2021. Adenovirus vaccines faced scrutiny for with syndrome (TTS), occurring in about 3-4 cases per million doses for , prompting temporary pauses in April 2021. Overall, serious adverse events remained below 0.01% of doses administered, with benefits against severe outweighing risks in population-level assessments, though underreporting in passive systems like VAERS limited precise causality attribution. The FDA granted full approval to the Pfizer vaccine for ages 16+ on August 23, 2021, amid ongoing data reviews.
VaccineTypeEfficacy vs. Symptomatic (Original Strain, Trials)Efficacy vs. Severe Disease (Delta, Real-World)Key Rare Adverse Event
Pfizer-BioNTechmRNA95%02183-8/fulltext)88% (hospitalization)02183-8/fulltext)Myocarditis (~1/100,000 young males)
mRNA94%93% (hospitalization) (similar to Pfizer)
70-90%80-90% (hospitalization)TTS (~1/100,000)
66% (moderate/severe)~70% (infection)TTS (3-4/million)

Lockdown Policies and Societal Costs

In early 2021, numerous countries maintained or reintroduced stringent measures amid resurgent waves, even as vaccines became available. For instance, entered a national on January 4, 2021, closing schools and non-essential businesses until restrictions began easing in April. extended lockdowns in cities like , accumulating over 200 days of restrictions by mid-year. In the United States, state-level policies varied, but many imposed renewed closures and capacity limits through spring, with full reopenings delayed until summer in places like . These policies aimed to curb transmission but persisted despite evidence of , as initial lockdowns in had already flattened curves in many areas without preventing subsequent surges driven by behavioral factors and variants. Economic repercussions were profound, with lockdowns correlating to sustained GDP contractions and elevated . Global analyses estimated a 2.1% GDP decline attributable to restrictions in 2020-2021, with developing economies facing steeper drops of 2.5%. In the , civilian fell by an additional several million jobs into early 2021, exacerbating a total -related loss of 8.8 million positions, particularly in service sectors shuttered by mandates. Empirical studies using Gallup across countries linked stricter suppression measures to higher rates of job and loss, with low-income workers hit hardest due to inability to telework. These costs stemmed from direct closures and indirect effects like reduced , outweighing benefits in cost-benefit assessments that pegged harms at 5 to 50 times the lives saved in wellbeing-adjusted terms. School closures, a hallmark of 2021 lockdowns, inflicted widespread learning losses, equivalent to 0.18 standard deviations on across 19 with 15 weeks of closure, translating to months of stalled . Longitudinal data showed losses up to 1.1 years of per year closed, with disparities amplifying for disadvantaged students—up to 60% greater impacts in low-income households due to limited home resources. Recovery remained incomplete by late 2021, as evidenced by persistent test score deficits in math and reading, underscoring causal links between prolonged remote learning and cognitive setbacks without commensurate reductions in child transmission rates. Mental health deteriorated under lockdowns, with meta-analyses of longitudinal studies revealing spikes in anxiety, depression, and , particularly during initial and repeated restrictions. One found heightened depressive symptoms and stress prevalence, affecting 10% of populations severely, with effects lingering post-easing due to and economic strain. Non-COVID health burdens compounded this, as excess deaths from other causes—such as delayed treatments for heart disease and cancer—reached 97,000 annually in the through 2021, driven by overwhelmed systems and avoidance of care. These outcomes challenged lockdown rationales, as empiric reviews indicated marginal mortality reductions overshadowed by broader harms, including iatrogenic effects on routine services. Critiques of 2021 policies highlighted overestimation of benefits in early models, with over 95 studies critiqued for undercounting costs like civil liberty erosion and social disconnection while inflating efficacy claims. A meta-analysis across jurisdictions concluded lockdowns yielded insufficient returns given their scale, recommending against future indiscriminate use. Sweden's lighter-touch approach, avoiding nationwide school closures, provided a , showing comparable per-capita outcomes to stricter regimes but with fewer collateral damages. Overall, empirical data underscored that while short-term suppression occurred, long-term societal tolls—economic, educational, and psychological—demanded reevaluation of proportionality.

Origins Hypothesis and Scientific Debates

The two principal hypotheses debated in 2021 for the emergence of were natural zoonotic spillover from an animal reservoir and a laboratory-associated incident, primarily linked to at the (WIV). The zoonotic hypothesis emphasized transmission from bats, possibly via an intermediate host like those traded at Wuhan's , where early cases clustered and environmental samples tested positive for the virus and animal DNA. Genetic features, such as receptor-binding domain adaptations, were argued to align with natural evolutionary processes observed in other coronaviruses, though no intermediate host species was conclusively identified despite extensive sampling efforts by that point. The laboratory incident hypothesis posited an accidental release of a pre-existing or enhanced during gain-of-function experiments at the WIV, which housed the world's largest collection of SARS-like coronaviruses and had documented lapses. Circumstantial indicators included the institute's location three miles from the outbreak's , U.S. reports of WIV researchers falling ill with COVID-like symptoms in autumn , and the abrupt offline status of a WIV database containing over 22,000 viral sequences in September . Unique genomic traits, notably the cleavage site absent in closely related sarbecoviruses like (sharing 96.2% sequence identity), fueled arguments that serial passaging or engineering could explain features without natural precedents, though of manipulation remained absent. Scientific contention peaked with the March 2021 (WHO)-China joint report, which rated zoonotic spillover as "likely to very likely" while deeming a lab leak "extremely unlikely," based on limited fieldwork and restricted raw data access granted by Chinese authorities. The assessment faced immediate scrutiny for its deference to Beijing's narrative control, including exclusion of independent lab audits and reliance on post-hoc interviews, potentially undermining objectivity amid geopolitical pressures. In response, U.S. President commissioned a 90-day intelligence review in May 2021, yielding an August declassified assessment from the Office of the revealing no consensus: most agencies favored natural exposure with moderate confidence, but four elements and the assessed a lab-associated origin more likely with low confidence, citing WIV's risky research on viruses with high human pandemic potential but finding no bioweapon intent or evidence. Emergence was pegged no later than November 2019 via small-scale exposure. The split underscored data gaps, particularly China's withholding of early case records and lab logs, while private emails from virologists like Kristian Andersen—initially alarmed by lab-like traits before publicly endorsing natural origins—exposed tensions between empirical anomalies and institutional incentives favoring , often tied to funding from entities like the U.S. that supported WIV work.

Variant Emergence and Global Spread

In early 2021, the Alpha variant (B.1.1.7), first identified in the in September 2020, drove significant surges across and , with detections reported in at least 114 countries by mid-year; its enhanced transmissibility, estimated at 50% higher than prior strains, contributed to increased case rates before vaccines scaled up. The Beta variant (B.1.351), originating in around May 2020, and the Gamma variant (P.1), detected in in November 2020, also circulated globally as variants of concern designated by the in January 2021, though their spread was more regionally contained compared to Alpha, with Beta showing partial immune escape from early vaccines in laboratory studies. These variants displaced wild-type strains in many areas, prompting renewed restrictions, but empirical genomic surveillance data indicated they were eventually outcompeted by later lineages due to superior replication fitness. The Delta variant (B.1.617.2), initially detected in on October 5, 2020, emerged as the dominant global strain by mid-2021 after its designation as a variant of concern by WHO on May 11; in , it rose from 4% of sequenced samples in early March to over 90% by May, fueling a wave with over 400,000 daily cases at peak in April-May, overwhelming healthcare systems and contributing to estimates of 4.7 million during that period. Delta's transmissibility was approximately 60% higher than Alpha, with a reproductive number () estimated at 5-8 in household settings, and it achieved over 50% prevalence in regions like the and within 7-13 weeks of introduction, reaching 98.7% global prevalence by late August. This rapid expansion occurred despite vaccination campaigns, as Delta partially evaded immunity from prior infection or early vaccines, with rates 2-4 times higher than with Alpha in observational data from and the . By November 2021, the variant (B.1.1.529) was first identified in specimens collected on November 11 in and November 14 in , with WHO designating it a variant of concern on November 26 due to over 30 mutations potentially enhancing transmissibility and immune escape. Initial spread was swift, with cases detected in multiple countries within weeks, including the first confirmation on December 1 from a traveler returning November 22; genomic data showed 's exponential growth outpacing Delta in , where it comprised 12% of sequences by November 25 and dominated by early December, signaling a shift toward higher evasion of vaccine-induced antibodies while causing milder severe outcomes in population-level studies.

Political and Geopolitical Developments

United States Internal Politics

On January 6, 2021, a mob of supporters of then-President stormed the during the joint session of Congress certifying the 2020 presidential election results, disrupting proceedings and leading to clashes with law enforcement that injured approximately 140 police officers. The classified the event as an act of . Five individuals died in connection with the riot, including one shot by Capitol Police and others from medical emergencies. The impeached Trump on January 13, 2021, on a single article of incitement of insurrection, passing 232-197 with ten Republicans joining Democrats. The trial occurred from February 9 to 13, 2021, resulting in by a 57-43 vote, falling short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. Joseph R. Biden Jr. was inaugurated as the 46th President on January 20, 2021, following his victory in the 2020 election certified by 306 electoral votes to Trump's 232. In his first 100 days, Biden issued over 60 executive actions, including reversals of Trump-era policies on immigration, environmental regulations, and public health. The 117th Congress, with narrow Democratic majorities, passed the American Rescue Plan Act on March 11, 2021, a $1.9 trillion COVID-19 relief package providing direct payments, enhanced unemployment benefits, and expansions to child tax credits and Medicaid, enacted via budget reconciliation without Republican support. Later in the year, bipartisan negotiations yielded the , signed into law on November 15, 2021, allocating $1.2 trillion for transportation, broadband, and water infrastructure improvements. Off-year on November 2, 2021, saw Republicans gain the Virginia governorship as defeated Democrat by 2.1 percentage points, signaling voter backlash against Democratic policies on education and mandates. In , incumbent Democrat narrowly retained the governorship against by 3.2 points after a recount. Democrats also held New York City's mayoralty with ' victory, but losses in local races underscored partisan polarization. Several Republican-led states enacted voting laws in response to 2020 election disputes, including stricter ID requirements and limits on mail-in voting, measures Democrats criticized as suppressive while proponents argued enhanced integrity. outlets, often aligned with Democratic perspectives, framed these reforms predominantly as restrictive, though empirical analyses showed varied impacts on turnout.

Afghanistan Withdrawal and Taliban Advance

On April 14, 2021, President announced the complete withdrawal of U.S. forces from by September 11, 2021, extending the timeline set in the February 2020 Doha Agreement negotiated by the Trump administration, which had stipulated a U.S. exit by , 2021, contingent on commitments to prevent terrorist attacks and engage in peace talks. The Doha deal had included the release of approximately 5,000 prisoners by the Afghan government under U.S. pressure, contributing to the insurgents' strengthened position. Withdrawal operations commenced on , 2021, reducing U.S. troop levels from around 2,500 to zero by the deadline, amid ongoing offensives that intensified as Afghan National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF) lost U.S. logistical and air support. The launched a nationwide offensive on May 1, 2021, exploiting the U.S. drawdown to capture rural districts and border crossings, followed by provincial capitals in July and August. By early August, the insurgents controlled over half of Afghanistan's districts, with ANDSF morale collapsing due to unpaid salaries, corruption, and dependency on foreign aid rather than sustained combat capability. Key provincial falls included on August 6, marking the first capital seized; , , and Sar-e Pol on August 7-8; and a rapid succession on August 11-12 of Taluqan, , , and , among others. U.S. intelligence assessments had projected Kabul's fall in one to three months, but the government's rapid disintegration outpaced predictions, attributed to internal ANDSF desertions and lack of unified resistance. On August 15, 2021, President fled amid advancing forces, who entered the city with minimal fighting as Afghan security units surrendered or disbanded. The declared victory, establishing the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and halting their offensive. U.S.-led evacuation efforts at International Airport airlifted over 120,000 people, including U.S. citizens, allies, and Afghan civilians, but operations were marred by chaos, with crowds overwhelming perimeter security. A suicide bombing by ISIS-K on August 26 at Abbey Gate killed 13 U.S. service members and approximately 170 Afghan civilians, highlighting vulnerabilities in the non-combatant evacuation. The final U.S. military flight departed Kabul on August 30, 2021, ending the 20-year presence that began after the September 11, 2001, attacks. The withdrawal left behind an estimated $7 billion in U.S.-provided military equipment to the ANDSF, including aircraft, vehicles, and weapons, much of which was captured by the Taliban due to the government's collapse. No U.S. combat deaths occurred during the drawdown prior to the airport attack, though the operation exposed systemic failures in Afghan force sustainability and U.S. planning for a swift Taliban resurgence.

Other International Elections and Shifts

In , the federal on September 26 resulted in the Social Democratic Party (SPD), led by , securing 25.7% of the vote and 206 seats in the , narrowly ahead of the Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU) alliance with 24.1% and 197 seats. The Greens obtained 14.8% and 116 seats, while the Free Democratic Party (FDP) gained 11.5% and 92 seats, enabling a traffic-light coalition of SPD, Greens, and FDP that installed Scholz as on December 8, marking the end of Angela Merkel's 16-year tenure and a shift toward more progressive climate and social policies. Canada's federal election on September 20 produced another for Justin Trudeau's Liberal Party, which won 32.6% of the popular vote and 160 of 338 seats, down slightly from 2019 despite pandemic-related spending. The Conservatives under took 33.7% of the vote but only 119 seats, reflecting regional divides, while the NDP and gained limited ground; was approximately 62.3%, with the outcome reinforcing Trudeau's leadership amid economic recovery debates. In , Chile's presidential runoff on December 19 saw leftist defeat conservative with 55.9% to 44.1%, becoming the country's youngest president at age 35 and signaling a leftward pivot following protests, though Boric moderated promises on economic reforms to address inflation concerns. Peru's June 6 runoff delivered a razor-thin victory for of the leftist Peru Libre party over , 50.1% to 49.9%, amid fraud allegations from Fujimori's camp that were dismissed by electoral authorities, leading to Castillo's inauguration and policies challenging neoliberal orthodoxy. elected on November 28 with 51.1% of the vote, ending the National Party's 12-year rule and marking the first female presidency, with Castro pledging anti-corruption measures and ties to leftist allies like . Russia's parliamentary elections from September 17 to 19 bolstered President Vladimir Putin's party with 49.8% of the vote and a in the , though international observers from the OSCE noted restrictions on opposition, including the barring of Alexei Navalny's allies and electronic voting discrepancies favoring incumbents. In , the October 31 lower house election saw Fumio Kishida's Liberal Democratic Party retain power but lose its outright majority, securing 261 seats with coalition partner , prompting reliance on smaller parties for legislative stability amid economic stagnation. Significant non-electoral shifts included military coups: Myanmar's on February 1, when the Tatmadaw detained Aung San Suu Kyi and nullified her party's 2020 landslide, sparking widespread protests and armed resistance that evolved into civil conflict. Guinea's September 5 coup ousted President Alpha Condé, with Colonel Mamady Doumbouya's junta citing constitutional overreach, leading to ECOWAS sanctions and a transitional government promise. Sudan's October 25 military takeover dissolved the civilian-military power-sharing accord post-2019 revolution, installing Abdel Fattah al-Burhan as leader and prompting international condemnation for undermining democratic transition. Barbados transitioned to a republic on November 30, removing Queen Elizabeth II as head of state and installing Governor-General Sandra Mason as president under Prime Minister Mia Mottley, symbolizing post-colonial realignment without altering governance structure.

Economic and Environmental Events

Global Economic Recovery Efforts

In 2021, governments worldwide implemented expansive fiscal stimulus packages to counteract the COVID-19-induced , with developed economies accounting for nearly four-fifths of total global outlays aimed at supporting jobs, income, and business liquidity. The enacted the $1.9 trillion American Rescue Plan Act on March 11, providing direct payments, enhanced , and to state and local governments, which contributed to a projected U.S. GDP growth of 5.1 percent for the year. In , the European Union's NextGenerationEU recovery fund, approved in July 2020 but with disbursements accelerating in 2021, allocated €806.9 billion in grants and loans for green and digital transitions across member states. These measures, tracked by the IMF's database, emphasized short-term relief but raised concerns over long-term debt sustainability, as public debt-to-GDP ratios in advanced economies exceeded 120 percent on average. Central banks maintained highly accommodative monetary policies throughout 2021 to facilitate credit flow and economic rebound, with interest rates held near zero and asset purchase programs expanded. The U.S. continued at a pace of $120 billion per month until tapering announcements later in the year, supporting strong growth amid vaccination progress and reopening. The extended its Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme through March 2022, purchasing €1.85 trillion in bonds to stabilize markets, while the and others sustained to prevent deflationary pressures. These actions, as analyzed in comparative studies, prioritized stimulation over immediate risks, which began emerging mid-year due to supply bottlenecks, though central banks largely viewed price pressures as transitory at the time. International coordination amplified recovery efforts, with the IMF providing approximately $170 billion in new financing to 90 countries during 2020-2021, including rapid disbursements under existing facilities to low-income nations facing debt distress. The G20 extended the Debt Service Suspension Initiative until June 2021 for 48 eligible poorest countries, suspending $12.9 billion in payments, and transitioned to the Common Framework for Debt Treatments, with initial implementations for Zambia and others later in the year. At the G20 Rome Summit on October 30-31, leaders endorsed strategies for inclusive digital infrastructure and sustainable growth, projecting global GDP expansion of 5.9 percent for 2021 amid uneven regional recoveries—stronger in advanced economies but lagging in emerging markets due to vaccine access disparities. The World Bank highlighted that while trade volumes surged 8 percent, driven by merchandise demand, low-income countries risked divergence without enhanced multilateral support.

Supply Chain Disruptions and Inflation Pressures

![Container Ship 'Ever Given' stuck in the Suez Canal, Egypt - March 24th, 2021 cropped.jpg][float-right] Global supply chains faced severe disruptions in 2021, primarily stemming from the ongoing effects of COVID-19 lockdowns, which caused factory shutdowns in key manufacturing hubs like China and led to shortages of raw materials, components, and finished goods. These issues were compounded by surging post-pandemic demand for consumer goods, resulting in port congestion and skyrocketing ocean shipping costs throughout the year. A notable incident occurred on March 23, 2021, when the container ship Ever Given ran aground in the Suez Canal, blocking the vital waterway for six days and delaying an estimated $9.6 billion in daily global trade, which accounts for about 12% of worldwide shipping volume. The blockage exacerbated existing bottlenecks, contributing to broader delays in Europe-Asia trade routes. The shortage, intensified by pandemic-related demand shifts and production constraints, severely impacted the automotive sector, leading to a projected global revenue loss of $110 billion for automakers in 2021. This crisis resulted in the idling of assembly lines and a production shortfall of 9.5 to 11 million light vehicles worldwide, as manufacturers prioritized higher-margin models or cut features to conserve chips. Labor shortages, driven by health restrictions and shifts in workforce participation, further strained and , with supplier delivery times lengthening significantly in both and the . These supply constraints played a key role in generating inflationary pressures, as reduced output met recovering demand fueled by fiscal stimulus, pushing up input costs for goods production. In the United States, the (CPI) for all urban consumers rose from 1.4% year-over-year in January 2021 to 7.0% by December, with core goods prices particularly affected by chain disruptions. Empirical analysis indicates that a one-standard-deviation shock reduced real GDP and increased by about 0.2 percentage points while elevating retail prices through cost-push effects. Global supply pressures also influenced expectations, amplifying price increases beyond immediate shortages. While demand-side factors contributed, evidence underscores the causal link from supply bottlenecks to sustained price rises in 2021.

Natural Disasters and Climate Patterns

In 2021, the world recorded 432 natural disaster events, exceeding the annual average of 357 from 2001–2020, resulting in 10,492 deaths and affecting 101.8 million people. These included floods (219 events), storms (110), earthquakes (27), and wildfires, with geophysical and meteorological hazards dominating losses estimated at $280 billion globally, of which $120 billion was insured. In the United States, 20 confirmed billion-dollar and disasters occurred, the second-highest annual total on record, totaling $145 billion in damages and surpassing the previous record set in 2020. Key drivers included severe storms (10 events), tropical cyclones (5), winter storms (2), wildfires (1), (1), and flooding (1), reflecting heightened exposure from and in vulnerable areas rather than solely increased event frequency. Hurricane Ida, forming on August 26 in the Atlantic, intensified rapidly to Category 4 strength before making landfall near , on August 29, with winds up to 150 mph and exceeding 10 feet in places. It caused 115 deaths across the U.S., including 91 in and New York from flash flooding, and inflicted $75 billion in damages, the costliest U.S. event of 2021. The featured 21 named storms, 7 hurricanes, and 4 major hurricanes, above average activity influenced by warm sea surface temperatures. Globally, floods devastated regions including in July, where over 200 died in from Ahr River overflow following 6–9 inches of rain in hours, and , where province floods in late July killed 398 and displaced millions. A 7.2-magnitude struck on August 14, triggering landslides and killing 2,248, exacerbating vulnerabilities from prior instability. Wildfires burned over 7.1 million acres in the western U.S., the third-worst season since 2000, with California's alone consuming 963,000 acres from July to October due to prolonged drought and high winds. The February 2021 , a rare intrusion, brought sub-zero temperatures, freezing , and power outages affecting 4.5 million, resulting in 246 deaths and $24 billion in damages from grid failures and strain. Globally, 2021 saw elevated activity in and , linked to dry conditions. Climatically, 2021 ranked as the sixth-warmest year globally since 1880, with combined land and ocean surface temperatures 0.76°C (1.37°F) above the 20th-century average, despite La Niña conditions emerging in October 2020 and persisting through the year. La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average eastern Pacific sea surface temperatures, typically suppresses global heat slightly but did not offset the underlying trend, as evidenced by the Northern Hemisphere's sixth-highest annual temperature at 1.09°C (1.96°F) above average. Precipitation patterns varied, with La Niña enhancing Atlantic hurricane activity while contributing to drier conditions in the U.S. Southwest and Australia. Arctic sea ice extent reached seasonal minima near or below average, continuing multi-decadal decline, though satellite records show natural variability alongside long-term reduction. These patterns underscore the interplay of oscillatory modes like ENSO with persistent anthropogenic influences on baseline temperatures, per observational data from NOAA and NASA.

Cultural and Social Dynamics

Social Media Censorship Incidents

In the aftermath of the January 6, 2021, storming of the U.S. Capitol, major social media platforms implemented widespread suspensions and content removals, citing violations of policies against incitement to violence and glorification of such acts. Twitter permanently suspended President Donald Trump's account (@realDonaldTrump) on January 8, 2021, after he posted videos and statements that the company deemed to carry a risk of further incitement, following two weeks of prior temporary locks. Facebook imposed an indefinite suspension on Trump's accounts on both Facebook and Instagram the day prior, on January 7, 2021, determining that his posts praising the events posed a threat to public safety. Similar actions followed across other platforms, including YouTube's indefinite suspension of Trump's channel on January 12, 2021, and Snapchat's permanent ban, collectively limiting his reach to hundreds of millions of followers. These measures extended to alternative platforms perceived as hosting similar content. , a popular among conservatives for its lighter moderation policies, was removed from Apple's on January 8, 2021, and Google's Play Store on January 9, after both companies cited insufficient efforts to prevent posts inciting violence related to the Capitol events. then terminated Parler's hosting services on January 10, 2021, effectively taking the site offline until it secured alternative infrastructure, an action Parler contested as discriminatory given the platform's claimed 15 million users prior to the shutdown. Critics, including Parler's CEO, argued these coordinated deplatformings represented , as comparable violent rhetoric on mainstream platforms faced less severe consequences, while defenders maintained they were necessary to mitigate real-world harms. Throughout 2021, platforms intensified removals of COVID-19-related content labeled as , including discussions of alternative treatments like and origins theories such as the lab leak hypothesis. , under pressure from authorities, removed over 20 million pieces of content between February and November 2021 for violating policies on false claims about s and cures, often in coordination with fact-checkers. suppressed accounts and tweets promoting or unproven therapies, with internal documents later revealing algorithmic deboosting of dissenting views to prioritize authoritative sources. In July 2021, President publicly stated that companies were "killing people" by allowing such content, prompting platforms to accelerate compliance amid government communications flagged as potentially coercive. These efforts, while aimed at curbing harmful during a , drew accusations of overreach from free speech advocates, who highlighted suppressed empirical data on side effects and treatment from peer-reviewed studies that contradicted official narratives at the time. The year's incidents fueled debates on platform neutrality, with Republicans viewing them as evidence of anti-conservative bias—evident in disproportionate actions against right-leaning figures and views—while Democrats and company executives framed them as proportionate responses to existential threats like election denialism and pandemics. Empirical analyses, such as those from , noted a decline in U.S. for the fifth consecutive year, attributing it partly to private-sector content controls amid polarized enforcement. Facebook's Oversight Board, in upholding Trump's suspension in May 2021, recommended time-limited bans over indefinite ones to balance safety and expression, underscoring ongoing tensions in self-regulation.

Identity Politics and Cancel Culture Cases

In March 2021, Dr. Seuss Enterprises, the organization managing the author's legacy, announced it would cease publication and licensing of six books—"And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street," "If I Ran the Zoo," "McElligot's Pool," "On Beyond Zebra!," "Scrambled Eggs Super!," and "The Cat's Quizzer"—citing portrayals of people deemed "hurtful and wrong," including racial stereotypes. The decision followed an internal review by educators and experts, but drew accusations of self-censorship driven by cultural pressures, with sales of remaining Dr. Seuss titles surging over 300% in response. On February 10, 2021, actress was fired by from the role of in after posting on a implying that conservatives in the U.S. faced treatment akin to under Nazi persecution, amid prior shares questioning election integrity and mask mandates. stated the post was "abhorrent and unacceptable," leading to her exclusion from future Star Wars projects, though supporters argued it reflected broader of dissenting political views rather than targeted . Piers Morgan resigned from ITV's Good Morning Britain on March 9, 2021, following intense backlash over his skepticism of during her interview, which he described as inconsistent with her public behavior. The remarks prompted over 41,000 complaints alleging bullying and racism toward the Duchess of Sussex, prompting an investigation, though Morgan defended his right to free speech and criticized "cancel culture" for stifling debate on and media narratives. In education, identity politics manifested in the San Francisco Unified School District's January 27, 2021, vote to rename 44 historic schools, targeting figures like (linked to Native American displacement) and (slave ownership), as part of a reckoning with "colonialist" legacies, despite ongoing pandemic-related school closures. The process, accelerated without full historical vetting, prioritized racial equity criteria over academic reopening, sparking public recall efforts and leading the board to rescind the plan on April 7, 2021, amid admissions of procedural errors. The promotion of (CRT) in K-12 curricula fueled national debates, with 26 states introducing legislation in the first half of 2021 to restrict teachings portraying concepts like systemic racism or white privilege as inherent truths, often framed by proponents as essential for addressing historical inequities and by critics as divisive prioritizing group identity over individual merit. At least 12 such measures passed, reflecting parental protests at school boards against materials emphasizing racial guilt or hierarchy.

Entertainment and Media Milestones

The film industry in 2021 experienced a partial recovery from the pandemic's disruptions, with global revenue reaching approximately $21.4 billion, an increase of 78% over 2020's totals. In the United States and , domestic earnings totaled $4.48 billion, reflecting a 112% rise from the prior year, though still far below pre-pandemic levels of $11.4 billion in 2019. This rebound was driven by the resumption of theatrical releases amid rollouts and varying regional reopenings, alongside hybrid models combining cinema and streaming distribution. A standout achievement was Spider-Man: No Way Home, released on December 17, which grossed $1.921 billion worldwide, becoming the highest-earning film of the year and the first pandemic-era release to surpass $1 billion globally. The film's success, fueled by cameos from previous Spider-Man actors and strong international performance, underscored audience demand for event cinema, with its domestic opening weekend alone generating $260 million. In television and streaming, Netflix's set viewership benchmarks upon its September 17 premiere, accumulating 1.65 billion hours viewed in its first 28 days and reaching 142 million subscriber households, marking the platform's biggest debut series at the time. The South Korean survival drama's global phenomenon status highlighted the surge in non-English content consumption, topping charts in 94 countries and propelling Netflix's international expansion. Music milestones included Adele's 30, released November 19, which achieved the largest U.S. debut week for any album since 2015 with 839,000 equivalent album units, predominantly from physical and digital sales. The album sold over 600,000 copies in the UK in its first week alone and was certified as 2021's top-selling record worldwide by the IFPI, emphasizing a resurgence in traditional album formats amid streaming dominance. Other notable media developments involved high-profile legal resolutions, such as the termination of ' 13-year on November 12, following public testimony and the #FreeBritney campaign, which drew widespread media scrutiny to celebrity autonomy and mental health protocols. Additionally, comedian Dave Chappelle's Netflix special , released October 5, ignited debates on after employee protests over its transgender-related humor, resulting in a walkout and underscoring tensions between artistic expression and platform policies.

Awards and Recognitions

Nobel Prizes

The Nobel Prizes for 2021 recognized advancements in understanding complex systems, molecular construction, sensory reception, literary exploration of colonialism, defense of free expression, and in . Awards were announced between October 4 and 11, with ceremonies held virtually or in limited formats due to ongoing considerations. In Physics, the prize was divided, with half jointly awarded to and "for the physical modelling of Earth's climate, quantifying variability and reliably predicting global warming," and half to "for the discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales." 's work at Princeton and NOAA in the 1960s-1970s developed models showing effects on climate, while 's models distinguished natural variability from human-induced changes. 's statistical physics contributions enabled predictions in disordered systems, applicable to climate and materials. The Chemistry prize went jointly to of the Max Planck Institute and David W. C. MacMillan of for developing asymmetric organocatalysis, a precise method using small organic molecules as catalysts to build molecules with specific three-dimensional structures, advancing pharmaceuticals and materials without rare metals or high energy. List's 2000 proline-catalyzed intermolecular reaction and MacMillan's intramolecular variant demonstrated broad applicability, reducing reliance on enzymatic or metal-based catalysis. In Physiology or Medicine, David Julius of the , and Ardem Patapoutian of shared the award for discovering receptors for temperature and touch, identifying for heat and capsaicin response via capsaicin library screening, and Piezo1/Piezo2 ion channels for mechanical stimuli through a pressure-sensitive cell line. These findings elucidated somatosensation mechanisms, informing treatments for and related conditions. Abdulrazak Gurnah, a Tanzanian-born residing in the UK, received the Literature prize "for his uncompromising and compassionate penetration of the effects of and the fate of the in the gulf between cultures and continents." His works, including Paradise (1994, Booker-shortlisted) and By the Sea (2001), examine displacement and identity in and post-colonial Britain. The Peace Prize was awarded jointly to , founder of in the , and , editor of in , "for their efforts to safeguard freedom of expression, which is a precondition for and lasting ." Ressa faced legal harassment under the Duterte administration for on and extrajudicial killings, while Muratov continued independent reporting amid threats following Navalny's poisoning and Russia's policy shifts. The Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of was split, with half to of the , "for his empirical contributions to ," particularly natural experiments like the 1992 Mariel Boatlift's minimal wage impact on Miami's low-skilled labor market. The other half was jointly to Joshua D. Angrist of MIT and Guido W. Imbens of Stanford "for their methodological contributions to the analysis of causal relationships," via instrumental variables estimating local average treatment effects in quasi-experiments, enhancing policy evaluation in education and employment.
CategoryLaureate(s)Key Contribution Summary
Physics, , Climate modeling and complex systems disorder.
Chemistry, David W. C. MacMillanAsymmetric organocatalysis for stereoselective synthesis.
Physiology or MedicineDavid Julius, Receptors for and touch.
LiteraturePenetration of and experiences.
Peace, Safeguarding freedom of expression.
Economic Sciences; , Empirical labor economics and causal inference methods.

Other Major Awards

The 93rd Academy Awards, recognizing films released in 2020, were held on April 25, 2021, at the in , with directed by winning Best Picture as well as Best Director for Zhao, marking her as the second woman and first woman of color to receive the latter honor. won Best Actor for The Father at age 83, becoming the oldest recipient, while earned Best Actress for , her third such award. The took place on March 14, 2021, in , where received the most wins with four, including Best R&B Performance for "Black Parade" and Best Music Video for the same track, bringing her career total to 28 and surpassing Alison Krauss as the most-awarded woman in Grammy history. won Album of the Year for Folklore, her third in the category and making her the first woman to achieve this feat. The , honoring television programs from June 2020 to May 2021, occurred on September 19, 2021, at the Microsoft Theater, with securing Outstanding Comedy Series and winning Outstanding Drama Series. The Queen's Gambit took Outstanding Limited or Anthology Series, while performers including for and for received acting honors. The Pulitzer Prizes for 2021, awarded on June 11 for work primarily from 2020, recognized excellence in , letters, drama, and music, with winning Fiction for The Night Watchman, a novel based on her grandfather's experiences as a Chippewa tribal chairman. In , staff won Investigative Reporting for coverage of the Trump administration's family separation policy at the U.S.-Mexico border, and of The Atlantic received Explanatory Reporting for his series on the .

Notable Births and Deaths

Notable Births

Princess Lilibet Diana Mountbatten-Windsor was born on June 4 in , as the daughter of , and ; she is seventh in line to the British throne. Sienna Elizabeth Mapelli Mozzi, born on September 18 to and , became the first child of a king's granddaughter in the direct line of succession since 1905. Elon Musk and Claire Boucher (known professionally as ) welcomed their second child together, a daughter named Exa Dark Sideræl Musk, via surrogate in December; the birth added to Musk's growing family amid his prominence in and . Other births to public figures included Ori, the third daughter of actress and Jaron Varsano, born in August, and a son to comedian and actress on December 24. These events drew media attention due to the parents' fame in and sports, though the infants themselves have not yet achieved independent notability.

Notable Deaths

In 2021, numerous influential individuals from diverse fields succumbed to various ailments, including advanced age, cancer, infections, and substance-related issues, reflecting the year's toll on public figures amid ongoing global health challenges. Prominent losses included royalty, political leaders, entertainers, athletes, and musicians whose contributions shaped modern history.
  • January 22: Henry "Hank" Aaron, Hall of Fame baseball player who held the major league record for career home runs (755) until 2007 and broke Jackie Robinson's color barrier in the National League, died at age 86 from natural causes at his home in Atlanta, Georgia.
  • January 23: Larry King, pioneering broadcast journalist who hosted CNN's Larry King Live for 25 years and interviewed over 60,000 guests, died at age 87 from sepsis secondary to underlying conditions including lung cancer and cardiovascular disease; he had tested positive for COVID-19 but his widow stated the infection was unrelated to his death.
  • January 28: Cicely Tyson, trailblazing actress known for roles in Sounder (1972) and The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman (1974), which earned her multiple Emmys, died at age 96; the cause was not publicly disclosed.
  • April 9: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh and consort to Queen Elizabeth II for 73 years, who supported numerous royal duties and founded the Duke of Edinburgh's Award scheme, died at age 99 at Windsor Castle from old age following recent heart issues.
  • April 9: Earl Simmons, known professionally as DMX, influential rapper whose debut album It's Dark and Hell Is Hot (1998) topped the Billboard 200 and who won a Grammy for his collaboration on "Party Up (Up in Here)," died at age 50 from a cocaine-induced heart attack leading to brain hypoxia after cardiac arrest.
  • August 24: Charlie Watts, drummer for the Rolling Stones since 1963 whose steady rhythm defined hits like "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction," died at age 80 in a London hospital from squamous cell carcinoma.
  • October 18: Colin Powell, first Black U.S. Secretary of State (2001–2005) and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989–1993), died at age 84 from COVID-19 complications exacerbated by multiple myeloma, a blood cancer that compromised his immune system despite full vaccination.
  • November 26: Stephen Sondheim, composer and lyricist whose works like West Side Story (lyrics), Sweeney Todd (1979), and Into the Woods (1987) revolutionized musical theater with complex narratives and earned him eight Tony Awards, died at age 91 from cardiovascular disease at his Connecticut home.
  • December 5: Bob Dole, long-serving U.S. Senator from Kansas (1969–1996), Senate Majority Leader, and 1996 Republican presidential nominee who received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1997, died at age 98 after a battle with lung cancer.
These deaths highlighted vulnerabilities in aging populations and chronic conditions, with several cases involving comorbidities that amplified risks from infections or substances.
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