Community hub
0 subscribers7 pages, 0 posts
Recent from talks
All channels
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Contribute something
Welcome to the community hub built to collect knowledge and have discussions related to List of wars involving France.
Nothing was collected or created yet.
List of wars involving France
View on Wikipediafrom Wikipedia
This is a list of wars involving modern France from the abolition of the French monarchy and the establishment of the French First Republic on 21 September 1792 until the current Fifth Republic.
- For wars involving the Kingdom of France (987–1792), see List of wars involving the Kingdom of France.
- For pre-987 wars, see List of wars involving Francia.
- French victory France
- French defeat
- Another result *
- Ongoing conflict
*e.g. a treaty or peace without a clear result, status quo ante bellum, result of civil or internal conflict, result unknown or indecisive, inconclusive
First French Republic (1792–1804)
[edit]| Conflict | Allies | Opponents | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| French Revolution (1789–1799) Location: France |
 Kingdom of France
|
Revolutionaries | French Republican victory
|
| War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) Location: France, Central Europe, Italy, the Low Countries, Spain, West Indies |
French naval allies |
First Coalition
|
French victory; Treaty of The Hague, Treaty of Paris, Peaces of Basel, Treaty of Tolentino, Treaty of Campo Formio
|
| War in the Vendée (1793–1796) Location: West France: Maine-et-Loire, Vendée, Loire-Atlantique, Deux-Sèvres (or former provinces of Anjou, Poitou, Brittany) |
French Republican victory | ||
| War of the Pyrenees (1793-1795) Location: Pyrenees |
French victory
| ||
| Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) Location: Hispaniola  |
1791–1793
|
1791–1793
|
Haitian victory
|
| French invasion of Switzerland (1798) Location: Old Swiss Confederacy |
French victory
| ||
| War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802) Location: Italy, Switzerland, Southern Germany, Middle East, Mediterranean Sea, Caribbean Sea |
Co-belligerent: |
Second Coalition:
Co-belligerent: |
French victory
|
| Peasants' War (1798) Location: Southern Netherlands annexed by the French Republic[m] |
 French Republic
|
 Brigands
|
French Republican victory |
| Quasi-War
(1798–1800) Location: Primarily Caribbean and East Coast of the United States, minor actions in Indian Ocean, and Mediterranean Sea |
Convention of 1800 | ||
| War of the Oranges (1801) Location: Alentejo, Portugal |
Franco-Spanish victory in Europe
|
First French Empire (1804–1814, 1815)
[edit]
Bourbon Restoration (1814–15, 1815–1830)
[edit]| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis (1823) Location: Spain |
|
|
Spanish and French Bourbon royalist victory
|
| Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) Location: Ottoman Greece (present-day Greece) |
In detail: Military support:
Diplomatic support: |
Supported by: |
Greek victory[q]
|
| Franco-Trarzan War of 1825 (1825) Location: Waalo, West Africa |
French victory | ||
| Irish and German Mercenary Soldiers' Revolt (1828) Location: Rio de Janeiro, Empire of Brazil |
Revolt suppressed | ||
| July Revolution (July 1830) Location: Paris, Kingdom of France |
Supported by: |
|
Revolutionary victory
|
July Monarchy (1830–1848)
[edit]| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Liberal Wars (1828–34) Location: Portugal |
 LiberalsSupported by:
|
 MiguelitesSupported by:
|
Liberal victory |
| French conquest of Algeria (1830–1903) Location: Algeria |
Support: |
|
French victory |
| Belgian Revolution (1830–31) Location: The Low Countries |
|
Treaty of London
| |
| June Rebellion (1832) Location: Paris |
|
|
Government victory
|
| First Carlist War (1833–1840) Location: Spain |
|
Liberal victory | |
| Pastry War (1838–1839) |
French victory[19][20] | ||
| Uruguayan Civil War (1839–1851) |
|
|
Colorado victory
|
| First Franco-Moroccan War (1844) Location: Morocco |
French victory | ||
| Franco-Tahitian War (1844–1847) Location: the Society Islands |
|
French victory | |
| Bombardment of Tourane (1847) Location: Off Tourane (Da Nang), South Central Coast of Vietnam |
French victory | ||
| French Revolution of 1848 (February 1848) |
|
|
Republican victory
|
Second French Republic (1848–1852)
[edit]| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| June Days uprising (June 1848) Location: France |
Insurgents |
Second Republic victory
| |
| First Italian War of Independence (1848–1849) Location: Lombardy–Venetia and Piedmont |
(1849) | Supported by: | Austrian victory
|
| French invasion of Honolulu (1849) |
French victory |
_crowned.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
Second French Empire (1852–1870)
[edit]| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Soninke-Marabout War (Kombo) (1850-1856) Location: Kingdom of Kombo |
|
French victory
| |
| Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) Location: China |
|
Qing victory | |
| Bombardment of Salé (1851) |
French military victory[21] | ||
| Crimean War (1853–1856) Location: Crimea, North Caucasus, Balkans, Black Sea, Baltic Sea, White Sea, Far East |
 Russia Greece[t]
|
Allied victory
| |
| Second Opium War (1856-1860) Location: China |
|
Allied victory (see § Aftermath)
| |
| Siege of Medina Fort (1857) |
French victory[24] | ||
| Campagne de Kabylie (1857) (1857) Location: Algeria |
 France
|
Kabylie Tribes | French Victory |
| Cochinchina Campaign (1858–1862) Location: Nam Kỳ, Đại Nam |
 Spain
Cobelligerent:
|
Franco-Spanish victory
| |
| Second Italian War of Independence (1859) Location: Lombardy–Venetia, Piedmont and the Austrian Littoral |
Franco-Sardinian victory
| ||
| Second Franco-Mexican War (1861–1867) Location: Mexico |
Mexican Republican victory | ||
| Shimonoseki Campaign (1863–1864) Location: Shimonoseki, Japan |
Allied victory | ||
| French campaign against Korea (1866) Location: Korea |
France
|
.png){kind=small} Korea
|
French defeat
|
| Garibaldi's expedition to Rome (1867)
Location: Rome |
France Papal States
|
 Italian volunteers
|
Franco-Papal Victory |
| Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) Location: France |
France
|
 North German Confederation
|
French defeat
|
French Third Republic (1870–1940)
[edit]
.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
Vichy France (1940–1944)
[edit]| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Franco-Thai War (1940–1941) Location: French Indochina |
Vichy France
|
 Thailand
|
Inconclusive
|
French Fourth Republic (1946–1958)
[edit]
.svg){kind=small}
French Fifth Republic (1958–present)
[edit]| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Basque conflict (1959–2011) Location: Greater Basque Country (Spain, France) |
Unaligned and anti-separatist paramilitary groups:
Basque National Liberation Movement:
Supported by: |
Partial victory for the Spanish and French states; political gains for Basque nationalism
| |
| Bizerte crisis (1961) |
France
|
 Tunisia
|
French victory |
| Sand War (1963–1964) |
 MoroccoSupport: France[47]
|
 AlgeriaSupport:  Egypt[48] Cuba[49]
|
Military stalemate[50]
|
| Dirty War (1974–1983) Location: Argentina |
 Argentina
Supported by: |
 ERP
|
Argentine government victory
|
| Western Sahara War (1975–1991) Location: Western Sahara |
Morocco Mauritania (1975–1979) France (1977–78) Operation Lamantin, aid from 1978)Supported by:  Saudi Arabia United States
|
 Western Sahara
|
Inconclusive
|
| Angolan Civil War (1975–2002) Location: Angola |
 UNITA FNLA (1975–1978) South Africa (1975–1991) Zaire (1975)Supported By United States (1975–1991) Morocco (1970s) China (1975) FLECMaterial support: France
|
 MPLA Cuba (1975–1991) SWAPO (1975–1991) ANC (1975–1991)Executive Outcomes (1993–1995)  FLNC (1975–2001) Namibia (2001–2002)Material support:  Soviet Union (1975–1991) Yugoslavia (1975–1991) North Korea (1980s) Brazil Mexico
|
MPLA Victory |
| Corsican conflict (1976–present) Location: Corsica |
Anti-separatist paramilitaries
Criminal groups |
|
Ongoing |
| Shaba I (1977) Location: Shaba Province, Zaire |
France Zaire Morocco Egypt BelgiumSupported by: United States China Saudi Arabia Sudan Nigeria
|
 Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FNLC)Supported by:  Angola Soviet Union East Germany
|
Zairian victory |
| Chadian–Libyan Conflict (1978–1987) Location: Chad |
 Anti-Libyan Chadian factions
|
 Libya
|
Chadian-French victory
|
| Shaba II (1978) |
France Zaire Belgium Morocco United States Supported by China
|
Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FNLC) Supported by Angola Cuba (alleged) Soviet Union (alleged)
|
Zairian victory |
| Rwandan Civil War (1990−1994) Location: Rwanda |
 Rwanda Zaire (1990) France
|
 Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF)
|
Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) victory |
| Gulf War (1990–1991) Location: Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and |
 Kuwait United States United Kingdom Saudi Arabia Egypt France Syria Morocco Oman Pakistan Canada United Arab Emirates Qatar Bangladesh Italy Australia Netherlands |
 Iraq
|
Coalition victory
|
| Djiboutian Civil War (1991–1994) Location: Northern Djibouti |
 Djibouti Supported by : France
|
 FRUD
|
Franco-Djiboutian victory
|
| Bosnian War (1992–1995) Location: Bosnia and Herzegovina |
 Bosnia and Herzegovina Herzeg-Bosnia CroatiaSupport:  NATO
|
 Republika Srpska Serbian Krajina Western Bosnia (from 1993)Support:  FR Yugoslavia
|
Croatian and Bosnian victory |
| Kosovo War (1998–1999) Location: Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (then part of Serbia) |
 KLA Belgium Canada Denmark France Germany Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Turkey United Kingdom United States
|
FR Yugoslavia
|
NATO Victory |
| War in Afghanistan (2001–2014) Location: Afghanistan |
 ISAF
|
 Taliban al-Qaeda
|
Taliban victory
|
| Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present) |
Algeria Mauritania Tunisia Libya Mali Niger Chad France Turkey
|
al-Qaeda
|
Ongoing |
| First Ivorian Civil War (2002–2007) Location: Ivory Coast  |
 Ivory Coast Young Patriots of Abidjan militia Liberian mercenaries Supported by: Russia Bulgaria Belarus
|
Forces Nouvelles de Côte d'Ivoire | Victory |
| Haitian coup d'état (2004) Location: Haiti |
 National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Haiti
|
Republic of Haiti
|
Victory |
| Chadian Civil War (2005–2010) Location: Chad |
Chad France NMRD JEM
|
Rebels Janjaweed Alleged support: Sudan (until 2010)
|
Victory |
| Somali Civil War (2009–present) Location: Somalia |
 Somalia United States European Union
|
Al-Qaeda
|
Ongoing |
| Boko Haram insurgency (2009–present) Location: Northeast Nigeria |
Nigeria Cameroon Chad Niger TurkeySupported by:  Benin Canada China France Iran Israel Italy Spain United Kingdom United States
|
Boko Haram
|
Ongoing |
| Second Ivorian Civil War (2010–2011) Location: Ivory Coast |
New Forces Liberian mercenaries RDR UNOCI France
|
Military of Ivory Coast Liberian mercenaries Young Patriots of Abidjan Ivorian Popular Front
|
Victory |
| First Libyan Civil War (2011) Location: Libya  |
NATO
|
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya:
|
Victory
|
| Northern Mali Conflict (2012–2022) Location: Northern Mali |
Government of Mali
|
 National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad(MNLA)
|
Mixed Results
|
| Central African Republic Civil War (2012–2021) Location: Central African Republic  |
 Central African Republic MINUSCA (since 2014)MISCA (2013–2014) MICOPAX (2013)
|
 FPRC UPC MPC
|
France ended support for Central African Republic in 2021.[56] |
| Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017) Location: Iraq |
 Iraq CJTF–OIR
|
 Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
|
Victory |
| Opération Chammal (2014–present)  |
France
|
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant Syria |
Ongoing
|
| Operation Aspides (19 February 2024 – present) Location: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Yemen |
|
Ongoing |
.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ Including the Polish Legions formed in French-allied Italy in 1797, following the abolition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Third Partition in 1795.
- ^ The French Revolutionary Army and Dutch revolutionaries overthrew the Dutch Republic and established the Batavian Republic as a puppet state in its place.
- ^ Various conquered Italian states, including the Cisalpine Republic from 1797
- ^ Re-entered the war against Britain as an ally of France after signing the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso.
- ^ Left the war after signing the Treaty of The Hague (1795) with France.
- ^ Including the Army of Condé
- ^ Nominally the Holy Roman Empire, under Austrian rule, also encompassed many other Italian states, such as the
Duchy of Modena and the 
Duchy of Massa. Left the war after signing the Treaty of Campo Formio with France.
- ^ a b Left the war after signing the Peace of Basel with France.
- ^ Left the war after signing the Treaty of Paris with France.
- ^ Napoleon Bonaparte, who wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East, planned to ally France with Mysore[3] and even planned to defeat the British together[4] but with Napoleon and Tipu's respective defeats, this plan was no longer possible.[5]
- ^ Nominally the Holy Roman Empire, under Austrian Habsburg rule, also nominally encompassed some other Italian states abolished in 1797, as well as other Habsburg states such as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.
- ^ An undeclared naval war between the United States and the First French Republic after Congress authorised a trade deal with Great Britain and suspended repaying French loans. Hostilities began in June 1798 and concluded in September 1800. The U.S. was never an official member of the Second Coalition.
- ^ Modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and German border lands
- ^ Some accounts mark the 1807 Franco–Spanish invasion of Portugal as the beginning of the war (Glover 2001, p. 45).
- ^ Denotes the date of the general armistice between France and the Sixth Coalition (Glover 2001, p. 335).
- ^ The Dutch Brigade
- ^ London Protocol (1830),
London Conference (1832),
Treaty of Constantinople (1832) - ^ a b From 1854
- ^ From 1855
- ^ Until 1854
- ^ Battle of Daugavpils
- ^ After 1920
- ^ a b Volunteers
.svg){kind=small}
- ^ a b c d e Mikaberidze 2020, p. 309 states that the contributions of coalition members aside from Austria were "rather nominal". Englund 2004, p. 345 writes that "the only real coalition to be mounted in this nominal fifth war of that name was the coalition France created against unhappy Austria; it included the key German States and Italy."
- ^ in rebellion against the Confederation of the Rhine
- ^ in rebellion against Bavaria
- ^ in rebellion against France in Illyria
- ^ in rebellion against the Kingdom of Italy
- ^ a b c Only in 1821
- ^ a b c From 1821–1823.
- ^ From 1821.
- ^ a b c From 1826.
- ^ Haiti was the first nation to recognize the independence of Greece.
- ^ The Duchy of Warsaw as a state was in effect fully occupied by Russian and Prussian forces by May 1813, although most Poles remained loyal to Napoleon.
- ^ Dissolved after the Battle of Vitoria in June 1813
- ^ Many member states defected after the Battle of Leipzig
References
[edit]Citations
[edit]- ^ "Wars of the Vendee". Archived from the original on 19 January 2024.
- ^ And other supporting soldiers as the Polish Legions and some Mamluks in captivity.
- ^ Tricolor and crescent William E. Watson p.13-14
- ^ Napoleon and Persia by Iradj Amini, p. 12
- ^ Karsh, p.11
- ^ Left the war signing the treaty of Paris (August 1801).
- ^ Great Britain until 1801. Left the war signing the treaty of Amiens.
- ^ Left the war signing the Treaty of Paris (8 October 1801).
- ^ Including the Mamluks and the Barbary Coast. Left the war signing the Treaty of Paris (1802) with France.
- ^ Left the war signing the Treaty of Florence with France.
- ^ Left the war signing the Treaty of Badajoz (1801) with Spain and the Treaty of Madrid (1801) with France.
- ^ Following the refusal to enter in alliance against the Two Sicilies, France declared war on both Naples and Piedmont-Sardinia the same day, December 6. The Piedmontese Republic was proclaimed on 10 December 1798. The Sardinian king Charles Emmanuel IV fled to Cagliari.
- ^ Olesen, Jens E. (2008). "Schwedisch-Pommern in der schwedischen Politik nach 1806". In North, Michael; Riemer, Robert. Das Ende des Alten Reiches im Ostseeraum. Wahrnehmungen und Transformationen (in German). Böhlau. pp. 289. ISBN 3-412-20108-1.
- ^ Zamoyski 2004, p. 87.
- ^ a b Chandler 1981, p. 181.
- ^ Hervé de Weck: Franche-Comté expedition in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, 8 May 2007.
- ^ Sakalis, Alex (25 March 2021). "The Italians Who Fought for Greek Independence". Italics Magazine. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
- ^ "Belgian Corps 1832–35 in Portugal's Liberal Wars". 11 June 2006. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
- ^ https://www.britannica.com/event/Pastry-War
- ^ https://www.thoughtco.com/the-pastry-war-mexico-vs-france-2136674
- ^ a b Brown 1976, p. 239.
- ^ a b Brown 1976, p. 240.
- ^ From 1858 "Second China War | National Army Museum". www.nam.ac.uk. Retrieved 2025-09-03.
- ^ Robinson 1985, p. 210.
- ^ "The activities of the officer the Kuban Cossack army N. S. Leontjev in the Italian-Ethiopic war in 1895–1896".
- ^ Richard, Pankhurst. "Ethiopia's Historic Quest for Medicine, 6". The Pankhurst History Library. Archived from the original on 2011-10-03.
- ^ Patman 2009, pp. 27–30
- ^ "Soviet Appeasement, Collective Security, and the Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935 and 1936". libcom.org.
- ^ Thomas Wilson, Edward (1974). Russia and Black Africa Before World War II. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–58.
- ^ Haggai, Erlich (1997). Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897. African World Press.
- ^ a b "Occupation during and after the War (Ottoman Empire) | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)". encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net.
- ^ Rettig, pp. 316–317.
- ^ Lee Lanning, Michael (2008). Inside the VC and the NVA. Texas A&M University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-60344-059-2.
- ^ Crozier, Brian (2005). Political Victory: The Elusive Prize Of Military Wars. Transaction. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-7658-0290-3.
- ^ Fall 1994, p. 63.
- ^ Logevall, Fredrik (2012). Embers of War: the fall of an empire and the making of America's Vietnam. Random House. pp. 596–599. ISBN 978-0-375-75647-4.
- ^ Alec G. Hargreaves (2005). Memory, Empire, and Postcolonialism: Legacies of French Colonialism. Lexington Books. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7391-0821-5.
The death knell of the French empire was sounded by the bitterly fought Algerian war of independence, which ended in 1962.
- ^ "The French defeat in the war effectively signaled the end of the French Empire". Jo McCormack (2010). Collective Memory: France and the Algerian War (1954–1962).
- ^ Paul Allatson; Jo McCormack (2008). Exile Cultures, Misplaced Identities. Rodopi. p. 117. ISBN 978-90-420-2406-9.
The Algerian War came to an end in 1962, and with it closed some 130 years of French colonial presence in Algeria (and North Africa). With this outcome, the French Empire, celebrated in pomp in Paris in the Exposition coloniale of 1931 ... received its decisive death blow.
- ^ Yves Beigbeder (2006). Judging War Crimes And Torture: French Justice And International Criminal Tribunals And Commissions (1940–2005). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 978-90-04-15329-5.
The independence of Algeria in 1962, after a long and bitter war, marked the end of the French Empire.
- ^ France's Colonial Legacies: Memory, Identity and Narrative. University of Wales Press. 15 October 2013. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-78316-585-8.
The difficult relationship which France has with the period of history dominated by the Algerian war has been well documented. The reluctance, which ended only in 1999, to acknowledge 'les évenements' as a war, the shame over the fate of the harki detachments, the amnesty covering many of the deeds committed during the war and the humiliation of a colonial defeat which marked the end of the French empire are just some of the reasons why France has preferred to look towards a Eurocentric future, rather than confront the painful aspects of its colonial past.
- ^ [37][38][39][40][41]
- ^ Teretta 2013, pp. 178–179.
- ^ "Cameroon - Moving toward independence | history - geography". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
- ^ "Documentos de la CIA relatan que Felipe González acordó crear los GAL". EiTB (in Spanish). 14 June 2020. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2020.
- ^ "Villarejo defiende la 'guerra sucia' contra ETA: "Me hubiera gustado participar"". www.publico.es. 21 October 2021. Retrieved 2021-10-24.
- ^ Nicole Grimaud (1 January 1984). La politique extérieure de l'Algérie (1962-1978). KARTHALA Editions. p. 198. ISBN 978-2-86537-111-2.
L'armée française était en 1963 présente en Algérie et au Maroc. Le gouvernement français, officiellement neutre, comme le rappelle le Conseil des ministres du 25 octobre 1963, n'a pas pu empêcher que la coopération très étroite entre l'armée française et l'armée marocaine n'ait eu quelques répercussions sur le terrain. == The French Army was in 1963 present in Algeria and Morocco. The French government, officially neutral, as recalled by the Council of Ministers on October 25, 1963, could not prevent the very close cooperation between the French army and the Moroccan army from having some repercussions on the ground.
- ^ Ottaway 1970, p. 166.
- ^ Brian Latell (24 April 2012). Castro's Secrets: Cuban Intelligence, The CIA, and the Assassination of John F. Kennedy. St. Martin's Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-137-00001-9.
In this instance, unlike several others, the Cubans did no fighting; Algeria concluded an armistice with the Moroccan king.
- ^ "Within weeks the war ended in stalemate." Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1 edited by Alexander Mikaberidze Read here.
- ^ McSherry, J. Patrice (2011). "Chapter 5: "Industrial repression" and Operation Condor in Latin America". In Esparza, Marcia; Henry R. Huttenbach; Daniel Feierstein (eds.). State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies). Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-0415664578.
- ^ Greg Grandin (2011). The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War. University of Chicago Press. p. 75. ISBN 9780226306902
- ^ Walter L. Hixson (2009). The Myth of American Diplomacy: National Identity and U.S. Foreign Policy. Yale University Press. p. 223. ISBN 0300151314
- ^ "Pour la première fois depuis 1993, le FLNC revendique un assassinat". Le Monde.fr. 2 December 2011. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
- ^ French Soldiers Quit Mali After 9 Years, Billions Spent and Many Lives Lost
- ^ France suspends military, budgetary support to Central African Republic, 8 June 2021
Bibliography
[edit]- Brown, Kenneth L. (1976). People of Sale: Tradition and Change in a Moroccan City, 1830–1930. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-66155-4.
- Croxton, Derek (2013). The Last Christian Peace: The Congress of Westphalia as A Baroque Event. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-33332-2.
- Fall, Bernard B. (1994). Street Without Joy: The French Debacle in Indochina. Stackpole. ISBN 978-0-8117-1700-7 – via Google Books.
- Kendall, Paul Murray (1974). Louis XI. Cardinal.
- Ottaway, David (1970). Algeria: The Politics of a Socialist Revolution. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520016552.
- Patman, Robert G. (2009). The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The Diplomacy of Intervention and Disengagement. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-10251-3.
- Saenger, Paul (Spring 1977). "Burgundy and the Inalienability of Appanages in the Reign of Louis XI". French Historical Studies. 10 (1): 1–26. doi:10.2307/286114. JSTOR 286114.
- Teretta, Meredith (2013). Nation of Outlaws, State of Violence: Nationalism, Grassfields Tradition, and State Building in Cameroon. Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 9780821444726.
List of wars involving France
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Pre-Modern Periods
Frankish Realms (481–843)
The Frankish Realms originated with the Salian Franks under Clovis I, who unified tribes through conquests in Gaul from 481 onward, defeating Roman remnants and rival Germanic kingdoms while establishing Merovingian rule until 751.[4] Expansion involved campaigns against Alamanni, Visigoths, and Burgundians, alongside internal divisions among sub-kings that led to frequent civil strife.[5] The period transitioned to Carolingian dominance under mayors like Charles Martel, whose 732 victory at Tours halted Umayyad incursions, followed by Pepin the Short's wars securing papal alliances and Charlemagne's extensive campaigns against Saxons, Avars, and others, culminating in civil wars after Louis the Pious's death that divided the empire by 843. These conflicts, often blending conquest with Christianization efforts, expanded Frankish territory from the Rhine to the Pyrenees but strained resources amid pagan resistance and dynastic rivalries.[6] Major wars included:- Conquest of Soissons (486): Clovis I defeated Syagrius, the last Gallo-Roman ruler in northern Gaul, at the Battle of Soissons, annexing the domain and eliminating Roman authority north of the Loire.[7]
- War against the Alamanni (496): Clovis's victory at Tolbiac over the Alamanni prompted his baptism and incorporated their territories east of the Rhine, strengthening Frankish hold on Germania.[8]
- Conquest of Thuringia (531): Under Theuderic I and Theudebert I, Franks subdued the Thuringian kingdom, extending influence into central Germany.[4]
- War against the Visigoths (506–507): Clovis allied with Burgundians to defeat Alaric II at Vouillé, seizing Aquitaine and most of southern Gaul up to the Garonne, though Septimania remained Visigothic.[7]
- Conquest of Burgundy (532–534): Joint Merovingian campaign under Childebert I and Chlothar I annexed the Burgundian kingdom after defeating King Sigismund, integrating southeastern Gaul.[4]
- Frisian–Frankish Wars (620s–734): Intermittent conflicts, including defeats under Dagobert I and victories by Charles Martel at Dorestad, gradually subordinated Frisian territories along the North Sea coast to Frankish overlordship.[5]
- Battle of Tours (732): Charles Martel repelled an Umayyad raiding army led by Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi, preventing deeper Islamic penetration into Francia and bolstering Carolingian prestige.
- Pepin's War against the Lombards (751–756): Pepin the Short, as king from 751, twice intervened in Italy at papal request, defeating Aistulf and donating territories to the Papacy, establishing Frankish protectorate over central Italy.[6]
- Rebellion of Aquitaine (760s): Pepin and later Charlemagne suppressed Waifer's revolt, fully integrating the duchy after sieges and battles, ending semi-autonomous status.
- Saxon Wars (772–804): Charlemagne's prolonged campaigns involved 18 major battles and massacres like Verden (782, 4,500 Saxons executed), culminating in Saxon submission, forced baptisms, and incorporation as a Frankish province.[6]
- Avars Wars (791–796): Charlemagne dismantled the Avar Khaganate through eastern campaigns, seizing treasure and territories in the Danube basin, which were distributed to allies and the Church.[6]
- Carolingian Civil War (840–843): Following Louis the Pious's death, his sons—Lothair, Louis the German, and Charles the Bald—clashed, with Charles and Louis defeating Lothair at Fontenay (841, ~20,000 casualties); the war ended with the Treaty of Verdun partitioning the empire.[5]
Kingdom of France (843–1792)
The Kingdom of France emerged from the Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the Carolingian Empire into three realms, with West Francia forming the basis of the French monarchy. From the 9th to 10th centuries, it contended with Viking raids, culminating in the establishment of the Duchy of Normandy in 911 after the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. Under the Capetian dynasty from 987, French kings consolidated power amid feudal conflicts, participating actively in the Crusades starting with the First Crusade (1096–1099), where French forces were pivotal in capturing Jerusalem. The Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) suppressed Cathar heresy in southern France, extending royal authority.[9] The Late Middle Ages saw the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) against England, a series of conflicts over territorial claims and succession that devastated France but ended with French expulsion of English forces from continental holdings except Calais.[10] In the Renaissance era, the Italian Wars (1494–1559) pitted France against the Holy Roman Empire and Spanish forces for control of Italian states, resulting in French withdrawal after initial gains. The 16th-century French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) were primarily civil strife between Catholics and Huguenots, with foreign interventions by Spain and England, concluding with the Edict of Nantes under Henry IV. Under the Bourbons, France entered the Thirty Years' War in 1635 against the Habsburgs, contributing to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 that weakened Habsburg power.[11] The subsequent Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659 ended with the Treaty of the Pyrenees, ceding territories to France. Louis XIV's reign featured expansionist conflicts: the War of Devolution (1667–1668) against Spain, the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678) involving multiple European powers, and the War of the League of Augsburg (1688–1697), all yielding territorial gains but straining resources. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) opposed French Bourbon claims in Spain, ending in stalemate with the Treaty of Utrecht. France suffered defeats in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and decisively in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), losing most North American and Indian colonies to Britain via the Treaty of Paris. These conflicts, while enhancing central authority and cultural influence, often incurred heavy debts and military losses, setting the stage for revolutionary upheavals.| War | Dates | Principal Opponents | Key Allies | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Viking Invasions of Francia | 843–911 | Norse Vikings | Various local lords | Establishment of Normandy; defensive victories after heavy losses |
| First Crusade | 1096–1099 | Seljuk Turks, Fatimids | Other Christian states | Capture of Jerusalem; French knights central to success |
| Albigensian Crusade | 1209–1229 | Cathars and southern nobles | Papal forces | Royal annexation of Languedoc; suppression of heresy[9] |
| Hundred Years' War | 1337–1453 | Kingdom of England | Scotland, Burgundy (varied) | French victory; end of English continental claims[10] |
| Italian Wars | 1494–1559 | Holy Roman Empire, Spain | Various Italian states, Ottomans (later) | French defeat; loss of Italian ambitions |
| French Wars of Religion | 1562–1598 | Huguenots (internal) | Spain (Catholic aid), England/Netherlands (Protestant aid) | Catholic victory; Edict of Nantes grants tolerance |
| Thirty Years' War (French phase) | 1635–1648 | Habsburgs (Austria, Spain) | Sweden, German Protestants | French gains via Westphalia; Habsburg decline[11] |
| Franco-Spanish War | 1635–1659 | Spain | Portugal, Dutch Republic | French victory; territorial acquisitions |
| War of Devolution | 1667–1668 | Spain, Triple Alliance (England, Dutch, Sweden) | - | French territorial gains in Spanish Netherlands |
| Franco-Dutch War | 1672–1678 | Dutch Republic, England, Spain, Holy Roman Empire | Sweden, Cologne | French gains; Treaty of Nijmegen |
| War of the League of Augsburg | 1688–1697 | Grand Alliance (England, Dutch, Austria, Spain) | - | Stalemate; Treaty of Ryswick restores status quo ante |
| War of the Spanish Succession | 1701–1714 | Grand Alliance (England, Dutch, Austria) | Spain (Bourbon), Bavaria | Stalemate; French Bourbon on Spanish throne, but colonial losses |
| War of the Austrian Succession | 1740–1748 | Austria, Britain, Dutch Republic | Prussia (varied), Spain, Bavaria | Stalemate; Prussia retains Silesia |
| Seven Years' War | 1756–1763 | Britain, Prussia, Portugal | Austria, Russia, Spain, Sweden | French defeat; loss of colonies via Treaty of Paris |
Modern Periods
First French Republic (1792–1804)
The First French Republic, proclaimed after the suspension of King Louis XVI on 10 August 1792, immediately confronted external threats from absolutist powers alarmed by revolutionary upheaval and the execution of the king on 21 January 1793, sparking the French Revolutionary Wars. These conflicts pitted France against successive coalitions while internal royalist revolts, fueled by resistance to dechristianization and conscription, erupted in western provinces. Colonial holdings faced slave insurrections, straining resources amid total mobilization under the levée en masse decreed on 23 August 1793.[12] France achieved defensive successes through mass armies and tactical innovations, but victories came at the cost of economic strain, hyperinflation, and the Reign of Terror from September 1793 to July 1794, which executed approximately 17,000 individuals and suppressed domestic dissent. By 1802, France had secured borders along the Rhine and Alps, though Britain remained a naval adversary, setting the stage for Napoleonic expansion. Internal pacification involved harsh reprisals, with estimates of 200,000 to 300,000 deaths in the Vendée alone from combat, disease, and executions.[12]| Conflict | Dates | Primary Opponents | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| War of the First Coalition | 20 April 1792 – 17 October 1797 | Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Dutch Republic, Spain, Kingdom of Sardinia | French victory; annexation of Austrian Netherlands and Rhineland principalities; Treaties of Basel (1795) and Campo Formio (1797).[13] |
| War in the Vendée | 1793–1796 | Royalist Catholic insurgents in western France | Republican suppression via infernal columns employing scorched-earth policies; high civilian toll, with over 100,000 deaths attributed to conflict and reprisals.[14] |
| War of the Second Coalition | 1798–1802 | Austria, Russia, Great Britain, Ottoman Empire, Kingdom of Naples, Portugal | French victory; Austrian exit via Treaty of Lunéville (1801); British peace via Treaty of Amiens (1802).[15] |
| Quasi-War | 1798–1800 | United States | Naval engagements ended by Convention of 1800; no reparations, but abrogation of 1778 alliance treaty.[16] |
| Haitian Revolution | 1791–1804 (peak French efforts 1793–1803) | Enslaved African rebels in Saint-Domingue, aided by British and Spanish interventions | Defeat of 60,000-strong French expeditionary force under Leclerc; loss of colony, leading to Haitian independence on 1 January 1804.[17][18] |
First French Empire (1804–1815)
The First French Empire, proclaimed in 1804 with Napoleon I as emperor, pursued aggressive expansion that provoked successive coalitions of European powers, leading to the Napoleonic Wars' major phase from 1805 to 1815. These conflicts pitted France and its allies against Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and others, resulting in initial French dominance through decisive battles but ultimate overextension and defeat due to coalition persistence, logistical strains, and resource depletion.[19][20] France mobilized over 2 million troops across campaigns, achieving territorial gains in central Europe while facing naval inferiority to Britain and prolonged guerrilla resistance in the Iberian Peninsula.[19] Key wars included:- War of the Third Coalition (1805): France, allied with Bavaria and other German states, confronted Britain, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Naples. Major French victories at Ulm (October 1805) and Austerlitz (2 December 1805) shattered the Austrian army and forced Russia's withdrawal, leading to the Treaty of Pressburg (26 December 1805), which dissolved the Holy Roman Empire and ceded Austrian territories to France's allies.[19][21]
- War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807): Opponents comprised Prussia, Russia, Britain, and Saxony (initially). French forces under Napoleon decisively defeated Prussia at Jena-Auerstedt (14 October 1806) and Russia at Friedland (14 June 1807), culminating in the Treaty of Tilsit (7–9 July 1807), which partitioned Prussia and aligned Russia temporarily with France against Britain.[19][22]
- Peninsular War (1808–1814): Triggered by French invasion of Spain and Portugal to enforce the Continental System against Britain, France faced Spanish and Portuguese insurgents alongside British expeditionary forces led by Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington). Despite early occupation of Madrid (1808), French armies suffered attrition from guerrilla tactics and defeats at Vitoria (21 June 1813) and Toulouse (10 April 1814), resulting in full expulsion from the peninsula by April 1814 and over 300,000 French casualties.[23][24]
- War of the Fifth Coalition (1809): Primarily against Austria, with British support. Napoleon's victory at Wagram (5–6 July 1809) compelled the Treaty of Schönbrunn (14 October 1809), annexing Austrian territories and weakening its influence.[19]
- Invasion of Russia (1812): A preemptive strike by 600,000 French-led troops against Russia to enforce alliances and secure borders. Initial advances captured Moscow (14 September 1812), but scorched-earth tactics, harsh winter, and Russian counterattacks led to a catastrophic retreat, with fewer than 50,000 survivors returning, severely weakening French military capacity.[19]
- War of the Sixth Coalition (1813–1814): Broad alliance of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain, Sweden, and others invaded French-held territories after Russia's resurgence. French defeat at Leipzig (16–19 October 1813)—the "Battle of the Nations" involving 600,000 troops—preceded allied invasion of France, Napoleon's abdication (6 April 1814), and the Treaty of Paris (30 May 1814), restoring Bourbon monarchy and ceding conquests.[19][25]
- War of the Seventh Coalition (1815): Sparked by Napoleon's return during the Hundred Days (20 March–22 June 1815). Coalition forces including Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia mobilized; Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo (18 June 1815) by Anglo-Dutch-Prussian armies ended the Empire, leading to his exile and the second Bourbon Restoration.[19][21]
Bourbon Restoration (1814–1830)
The Bourbon Restoration period saw France pursue a policy of conservative monarchism aligned with the Holy Alliance, leading to selective military engagements aimed at countering liberal revolutions and Ottoman influence rather than territorial expansion. These interventions were limited in scope compared to the Napoleonic era, reflecting the regime's emphasis on internal stabilization after the 1815 defeat, with French forces totaling around 100,000 in the largest deployment.[26][27] France's primary European intervention occurred in 1823, when an army of approximately 90,000–100,000 troops, dubbed the "Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis" and commanded by Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, invaded Spain at the behest of the Congress of Verona to restore absolute rule to King Ferdinand VII after a liberal uprising had imposed a constitution in 1820.[27][28][29] Crossing the Pyrenees on April 7, 1823, the French forces faced minimal resistance from Spanish liberals, capturing key cities including Madrid by May 23 and besieging Cádiz, where Ferdinand was held; the operation concluded successfully by October 1823 with Ferdinand's restoration, though it incurred about 10,000 French casualties from disease and combat, bolstering the regime's prestige domestically but straining finances.[27][29] In support of Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire, France joined Britain and Russia in naval operations during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1830). On October 20, 1827, a combined allied fleet including French ships under Admiral de Rigny engaged and destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian armada at the Battle of Navarino in Pylos Bay, resulting in over 8,000 Ottoman casualties and the near-total loss of their fleet, which decisively aided Greek rebels without direct French land commitment at that stage.[30][31] This was followed by the Morea Expedition in 1828, where 15,000 French troops under General Maison landed in the Peloponnese in August to enforce the Treaty of London (1827) by expelling Egyptian forces; the campaign, lasting until January 1829, involved sieges and skirmishes leading to the evacuation of 40,000–50,000 Egyptian troops, with French losses around 500, marking France's contribution to establishing Greek autonomy under Ottoman suzerainty.[32] Under Charles X, France launched the invasion of Algiers on June 14, 1830, deploying a 37,000-strong expeditionary force and 600-ship armada under Marshal de Bourmont to seize the Ottoman Regency of Algiers, prompted by the 1827 "fly whisk incident" and aims to redirect domestic unrest through colonial glory.[33][34] Algiers fell after bombardment and amphibious assault, with Dey Hussein capitulating on July 5; French forces suffered fewer than 500 deaths, capturing vast treasures and ending three centuries of Ottoman rule, though the victory's news arrived amid the July Revolution (July 27–29, 1830), which toppled the Restoration regime before full consolidation.[33][34]| Conflict | Dates | Primary Opponent(s) | French Forces Involved | Outcome for France |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spanish Intervention ("Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis") | April–October 1823 | Spanish liberals | ~100,000 troops | Restoration of Ferdinand VII; French withdrawal after success; ~10,000 casualties |
| Battle of Navarino (Greek War of Independence) | October 20, 1827 | Ottoman-Egyptian fleet | Naval squadron (part of allied fleet) | Decisive allied victory; Ottoman fleet destroyed |
| Morea Expedition (Greek War of Independence) | August 1828–January 1829 | Egyptian forces in Peloponnese | ~15,000 troops | Egyptian evacuation; Greek gains secured; minimal French losses |
| Invasion of Algiers | June 14–July 5, 1830 | Regency of Algiers (Ottoman) | 37,000 troops, 600 vessels | Capture of Algiers; regime change in France shortly after |
July Monarchy (1830–1848)
During the July Monarchy, France under King Louis-Philippe pursued a policy of colonial expansion and cautious support for liberal constitutional regimes in Europe, avoiding large-scale continental wars while focusing military efforts on the conquest of Algeria. This period marked the initiation and intensification of France's North African empire-building, alongside expeditionary interventions to secure diplomatic gains and protect national interests amid revolutionary upheavals. Military engagements were characterized by professionalized forces, including the newly formed French Foreign Legion in 1831, and emphasized rapid amphibious operations and pacification campaigns rather than total mobilization.[35]| Conflict | Dates | Location | France and Allies | Opponents | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Conquest of Algeria | 1830–1847 | Algeria | France | Regency of Algiers; Emirate of Abdelkader | French victory; establishment of coastal enclaves and progressive inland conquest, with Algiers captured on 5 July 1830 following a landing of 37,000 troops at Sidi Fredj on 14 June; ongoing resistance led to campaigns like the Siege of Constantine (1837) and pacification under Thomas Robert Bugeaud, resulting in the Treaty of Tafna (1837) temporarily ceding western Algeria to Abdelkader before renewed advances by 1847.[33][34][36] |
| Intervention in the Belgian Revolution | August 1831–1833 | Belgium | France; Belgium | Netherlands | French success; an expeditionary force of approximately 60,000 under Marshal Étienne Maurice Gérard deployed to counter the Dutch "Ten Days' Campaign" invasion, compelling Dutch withdrawal by late August 1831 and facilitating the Treaty of London (1839) recognizing Belgian independence, with French troops withdrawing by 1832 after international arbitration.[37][38] |
| Battle of the Tagus | 11 July 1831 | Lisbon, Portugal | France; Portuguese liberals (led by Pedro IV) | Miguelist Portugal | French tactical victory; a squadron under Rear Admiral Albin Roussin forced the Tagus estuary, bombarded forts, captured 17 Miguelist ships, and extracted a 15 million franc indemnity plus release of liberal prisoners, bolstering Pedro's constitutionalist forces in the Liberal Wars without ground troop commitment.[39] |
| Intervention in the First Carlist War | 1835–1839 | Spain | France; Spanish liberals (Isabelinos under Maria Christina); Britain; Portugal | Carlists (supporters of Don Carlos) | Allied victory; France deployed up to 50,000 troops in the Army of the Pyrenees for border blockade and auxiliary support, including the French Foreign Legion's transfer to Spanish service in 1835, contributing to the defeat of Carlist forces and the 1839 Vergara Embrace, which ended major hostilities and affirmed Isabella II's throne without direct French combat escalation.[40][41] |
Second French Republic (1848–1852)
The Second French Republic's foreign military involvement centered on the intervention in the Papal States to suppress the Roman Republic and restore Pope Pius IX. Established in February 1849 after the pope's flight from Rome amid revolutionary unrest, the Roman Republic posed a challenge to Catholic authority and European conservative order, prompting President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte's government to act despite domestic divisions. On 25 April 1849, French forces numbering around 8,000 troops under General Charles Oudinot landed at Civitavecchia, northwest of Rome, with the explicit aim of reinstating papal rule without annexing territory.[42] An initial French assault on 30 April 1849 was repelled by approximately 20,000 defenders, including volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, forcing Oudinot to retreat temporarily and request reinforcements. French troops, bolstered to over 20,000 by mid-June, then imposed a blockade and conducted siege operations, breaching Rome's walls on 30 June after artillery bombardment. The city capitulated on 3 July 1849, ending the Roman Republic after five months; casualties included hundreds of French soldiers killed or wounded, alongside significant republican losses. The victory aligned with Bonaparte's strategy to bolster Catholic support in France but strained relations with Italian nationalists and drew criticism from radicals who viewed it as counterrevolutionary aggression.[42][43] France maintained a garrison of several thousand troops in Rome and Ancona until 1870, ostensibly to safeguard the pope against further uprisings, though this commitment tied down resources amid domestic instability leading to Bonaparte's 1851 coup. Domestically, the republic faced the June Days uprising (23–26 June 1848), a violent clash in Paris between workers protesting workshop closures and national guard forces, resulting in 4,000–5,000 deaths and marking intense class conflict, though classified as civil unrest rather than interstate war. In Algeria, ongoing pacification efforts continued the pre-republican conquest; coastal regions were integrated as French departments in 1848, but interior tribal resistance, particularly among Kabyle Berbers, required expeditions through 1852, with no major pitched battles but steady French advances consolidating control.[44]Second French Empire (1852–1870)
The Second French Empire, established by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (Napoleon III) in 1852, pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at restoring French prestige through military interventions. These conflicts included alliances against Russian expansion, support for Italian unification, an ill-fated imperial venture in the Americas, and a disastrous war with Prussia that precipitated the regime's collapse.[45] Crimean War (1853–1856)France entered the war in 1854 as part of a coalition with the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Russian Empire, primarily over Russian claims to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman territories and broader disputes regarding influence in the declining Ottoman Empire. French troops, numbering around 400,000 at peak involvement, contributed decisively to the siege and capture of Sevastopol in September 1855 after 11 months of bombardment and assaults. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris on March 30, 1856, which demilitarized the Black Sea and curbed Russian naval power, enhancing France's diplomatic standing in Europe.[46][47] Second Italian War of Independence (1859)
In alliance with the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont-Sardinia), France declared war on Austria on April 26, 1859, to expel Austrian control from northern Italy and facilitate unification under Piedmontese leadership, motivated by Napoleon III's strategic interest in weakening Austria and gaining Nice and Savoy as compensation. French-Sardinian forces won key victories at the Battle of Magenta (June 4) and the Battle of Solferino (June 24), the latter involving over 300,000 combatants and resulting in approximately 40,000 casualties. The conflict concluded with the Armistice of Villafranca on July 11, 1859, under French mediation, leading to Austria ceding Lombardy to France (which transferred it to Sardinia) while retaining Venetia; France received Savoy and Nice via the Treaty of Turin in 1860.[48][49] French intervention in Mexico (1861–1867)
Prompted by Mexico's suspension of debt payments in 1861 and Napoleon III's ambition to create a French-friendly monarchy in the Americas, French forces—initially alongside Britain and Spain—invaded Veracruz in December 1861, withdrawing the allies in April 1862 while France continued alone with up to 38,000 troops. Despite early successes, including the capture of Mexico City in 1863, and the installation of Austrian Archduke Maximilian as emperor in 1864, sustained guerrilla resistance from Republican forces under Benito Juárez, combined with U.S. diplomatic opposition after its Civil War ended in 1865, forced French withdrawal by March 1867; Maximilian was captured and executed in June 1867, marking a humiliating defeat for France with over 6,000 military deaths.[50][51] Franco-Prussian War (1870)
Tensions escalated when France opposed Prussian King Wilhelm I's candidacy for the Spanish throne, leading to the Ems Dispatch on July 13, 1870, and France's declaration of war on Prussia on July 19; the conflict pitted the French Empire against Prussia and its North German Confederation allies, with France fielding about 500,000 troops against a better-organized Prussian force of similar size. Prussian armies under Helmuth von Moltke achieved rapid victories, culminating in the encirclement and capture of Napoleon III with 100,000 troops at the Battle of Sedan on September 2, 1870; this disaster triggered the Empire's overthrow on September 4, the proclamation of the Third Republic, and continued fighting until the war's formal end in May 1871 under the new regime, resulting in French cession of Alsace-Lorraine and a 5 billion franc indemnity.[45][52]
French Third Republic (1870–1940)
The French Third Republic, established amid the Franco-Prussian War, engaged in numerous conflicts, including the concluding phase of that war, extensive colonial conquests in Africa and Asia, interventions in foreign civil wars, and the major global conflicts of the era. These engagements reflected France's ambitions for imperial expansion, defense against perceived threats, and alliance obligations, often resulting in territorial gains or maintenance of mandates at significant human cost.[53]| War | Dates | Primary Opponents | Outcome for France |
|---|---|---|---|
| Franco-Prussian War | 1870–1871 | Prussia and North German Confederation allies (e.g., Bavaria) | Defeat; cession of Alsace-Lorraine, indemnity of 5 billion francs, and proclamation of the Third Republic on September 4, 1870, during the conflict.[54] [55] |
| Tunisian Campaign | 1881 | Beylik of Tunis | Successful occupation; establishment of French protectorate over Tunisia by May 1881 after invasion on April 28. |
| Tonkin War (part of Sino-French War) | 1883–1886 | Qing China and Vietnamese forces | Victory; recognition of French protectorate over Tonkin and Annam, securing Indochina expansion despite naval losses. |
| Second Madagascar Expedition | 1895 | Merina Kingdom | Conquest; full control of Madagascar as colony by October 1895 after amphibious assault on Mahajanga and advance on Antananarivo. |
| Boxer Rebellion | 1900–1901 | Boxer rebels and Qing China | Allied victory; French contribution to Eight-Nation Alliance relief of Beijing legations and suppression of uprising, with no major territorial losses but reinforcement of concessions.[56] [57] |
| World War I | 1914–1918 | Central Powers (primarily Germany, Austria-Hungary) | Allied victory; France mobilized 8 million men, suffered 1.3 million deaths, regained Alsace-Lorraine, but faced massive territorial devastation in northeast.[58] [59] |
| Allied Intervention in Russian Civil War (Southern Russia) | 1918–1919 | Bolsheviks | Withdrawal; French forces (up to 60,000 troops) supported White Russians in Odessa and Crimea but evacuated by April 1919 due to mutinies and low morale.[60] [61] |
| Franco-Turkish War (Cilician Campaign) | 1918–1921 | Turkish National Movement | Defeat and withdrawal; French occupation of Cilicia ended by Treaty of Ankara (October 20, 1921), ceding territory to Turkey after sieges like Aintab.[62] [63] |
| Rif War | 1925–1926 | Rif Republic (Abd el-Krim forces) | Victory; French-Spanish joint offensive, including Marshal Pétain's command of 120,000 troops, crushed rebellion by May 1926, securing Moroccan protectorate.[64] [65] |
| Great Syrian Revolt | 1925–1927 | Druze and Arab rebels (Sultan al-Atrash) | Suppression; French forces, using air power and bombardment (e.g., Damascus October 1925), restored mandate control by 1927, with 6,000 French casualties.[66] [67] |
| World War II (Battle of France/Phoney War) | 1939–1940 | Nazi Germany and allies | Defeat; German invasion on May 10, 1940, led to armistice on June 22 after six weeks, collapse of Third Republic, and occupation of northern France.[68] [69] |
Vichy France (1940–1944)
Vichy France, the collaborationist regime established after the armistice with Nazi Germany on 22 June 1940, maintained control over southern metropolitan France and extensive colonial territories, leading to defensive conflicts against Allied and Free French forces seeking to neutralize potential Axis assets. These engagements, often involving Vichy colonial garrisons, highlighted the regime's nominal sovereignty but limited military capacity, with outcomes generally favoring Allied amphibious and ground operations despite initial Vichy resistance.[71][72] Key conflicts included the Battle of Dakar (Operation Menace), fought from 23 to 25 September 1940, where British and Free French naval forces attempted to seize the Senegalese port from Vichy defenders but were repelled by shore batteries and French warships, resulting in Allied withdrawal after sustaining over 200 casualties and ship damage while Vichy losses numbered around 180 killed.[73][74] The Syria-Lebanon Campaign, from 8 June to 14 July 1941, saw British Commonwealth troops, supported by Free French units, invade Vichy-held mandates to counter German influence after a pro-Axis coup in Iraq; Vichy forces under General Henri Dentz mounted a stubborn defense with approximately 40,000 troops, air support, and fortifications, inflicting heavy Allied casualties (around 4,000) before surrendering following the fall of Beirut and Damour, with Vichy losses exceeding 5,000.[75][76] In the Battle of Madagascar (Operation Ironclad), commencing 5 May 1942, British forces captured the strategic northern port of Diego-Suarez from 8,000 Vichy troops after amphibious assaults, securing the island's northern tip by 7 May despite resistance costing Allies 105 killed and Vichy 150 killed; prolonged operations until November 1942 subdued remaining Vichy holdouts under General Armand Annet, preventing Japanese occupation and yielding full Allied control with minimal further bloodshed.[77][78] Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of Vichy-controlled North Africa on 8 November 1942, involved over 100,000 U.S. and British troops landing in Morocco and Algeria against Vichy forces totaling about 120,000 under Admiral François Darlan; initial fierce resistance, including the Naval Battle of Casablanca, saw Vichy sink several Allied ships before a ceasefire on 11 November, transitioning many Vichy units to Allied service and enabling advances against Axis forces in Tunisia.[79][80]| Conflict | Dates | Primary Opponents | Vichy Forces Involved | Outcome for Vichy France |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Battle of Dakar | 23–25 Sep 1940 | British, Free French | ~5,000 troops, naval assets | Successful defense; Allied forces repelled |
| Syria-Lebanon Campaign | 8 Jun–14 Jul 1941 | British Commonwealth, Free French | ~40,000 troops, air forces | Surrender after territorial losses |
| Battle of Madagascar | 5 May–6 Nov 1942 | British, South African | ~8,000 troops initially | Gradual defeat; full Allied occupation |
| Operation Torch | 8–16 Nov 1942 | U.S., British | ~120,000 troops | Ceasefire; partial integration with Allies |
Free French Forces and World War II Liberation (1940–1945)
The Free French Forces, led by General Charles de Gaulle, were established following his radio appeal on June 18, 1940, from London, calling for continued resistance against Nazi Germany after the French armistice of June 22, 1940.[81] Britain formally recognized de Gaulle as leader of the Free French on June 28, 1940.[82] Initial forces were small, comprising expatriates, volunteers from French colonies, and defectors, totaling around 7,000 men by late 1940, primarily based in French Equatorial Africa after securing control from Vichy-aligned administrations.[81] Early operations included failed attempts like the Battle of Dakar in September 1940, where Free French and British forces were repelled by Vichy defenders, but successes followed in Gabon (October-November 1940) and against Vichy forces in Syria and Lebanon alongside British troops in June-July 1941.[81] A pivotal engagement was the Battle of Bir Hakeim in May-June 1942, where the 1st Free French Brigade, under General Pierre Koenig, delayed Axis advances in Libya, holding out for two weeks against superior Italian and German forces, inflicting significant casualties while suffering around 1,000 losses from an initial 3,700 troops.[83] Following Operation Torch in November 1942, Free French elements merged with French forces in North Africa under General Henri Giraud, forming the Fighting French, which participated in the Tunisian Campaign (November 1942-May 1943), contributing to the Axis defeat in Africa with over 100,000 troops by mid-1943.[81] In the Italian Campaign starting in 1943, Free French units, including the French Expeditionary Corps under General Alphonse Juin, fought in battles such as Monte Cassino, where they advanced through the Gustav Line in May 1944, suffering heavy casualties but enabling Allied breakthroughs.[81] By mid-1944, Free French strength exceeded 400,000 personnel, equipped largely by the United States, enabling significant roles in the liberation of metropolitan France.[81] In Operation Overlord, the 2nd Armored Division under General Philippe Leclerc landed in Normandy on August 1, 1944 (D+57), contributing to the encirclement of German forces at Falaise in August.[84] Simultaneously, during Operation Dragoon on August 15, 1944, the French Army B (later 1st French Army) under General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny landed in Provence, advancing northward and liberating Marseille and Toulon by late August.[81] The liberation of Paris began with an uprising on August 19, 1944, led by French Resistance forces; Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division, comprising about 16,000 troops mostly from French colonies including Senegal and Chad, entered the city on August 24-25, 1944, defeating German defenders and securing the capital alongside the U.S. 4th Infantry Division, with minimal damage to the city as prioritized by Allied command.[84] De Gaulle arrived on August 25, symbolically reasserting French sovereignty.[85] Free French forces continued operations into 1945, participating in the advance across eastern France, the Vosges Mountains, and toward the Rhine, with the 1st French Army crossing into Germany in March 1945, contributing to the final defeat of Axis forces in Europe on May 8, 1945.[81] By war's end, Free French and allied French units totaled over 1.3 million, marking a shift from initial marginal status to a major Allied contributor.[81]French Fourth Republic (1946–1958)
The French Fourth Republic (1946–1958) was characterized by intense military engagements, largely driven by efforts to retain colonial holdings amid rising nationalist movements and postwar international commitments. These conflicts strained France's resources, contributing to political instability that ultimately led to the Republic's collapse. Key involvements included counterinsurgency operations in Indochina and Madagascar, a United Nations contribution to the Korean War, and the initial phases of the Algerian independence struggle, which mobilized hundreds of thousands of troops and highlighted the challenges of asymmetric warfare against determined insurgents.[86] First Indochina War (1946–1954)The First Indochina War erupted in late 1946 following the breakdown of negotiations between French authorities and the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, over the future of French Indochina. French forces, initially numbering around 15,000 and growing to over 400,000 by 1954 with significant U.S. financial support covering up to 80% of costs, faced guerrilla tactics and conventional battles across Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Major setbacks included the 1950 Chinese intervention aiding the Viet Minh and the decisive defeat at Dien Bien Phu from March to May 1954, where 13,000 French troops surrendered after a 55-day siege. The war concluded with the Geneva Accords on July 21, 1954, partitioning Vietnam at the 17th parallel and granting independence to Laos and Cambodia, marking a humiliating French withdrawal after approximately 75,000 French casualties.[87][88] Malagasy Uprising (1947–1949)
In Madagascar, a French colony since 1896, the Malagasy Uprising began on March 29, 1947, when insurgents attacked French garrisons, killing around 20 French and Senegalese soldiers in Moramanga and sparking widespread revolts across one-third of the island. MDRM nationalists, influenced by postwar independence demands, coordinated ambushes and sabotage against approximately 20,000 French troops reinforced by Senegalese units. French suppression involved aerial bombings, scorched-earth tactics, and mass arrests, resulting in an estimated 11,000 to 90,000 Malagasy deaths—mostly civilians—versus 500 French military losses. By late 1948, organized resistance collapsed, though sporadic fighting persisted into 1949, solidifying French control until gradual decolonization.[89][90] Korean War (1950–1953)
France contributed to the United Nations response to North Korea's invasion of South Korea on June 25, 1950, deploying a volunteer infantry battalion of about 1,200 men (French Battalion de l'ONU) integrated into U.S. divisions, alongside naval support including the cruiser De Grasse. Rotating three battalions totaling 3,400 personnel, French forces participated in key operations like the Battle of the Chosin Reservoir in late 1950, suffering 262 killed and 1,008 wounded in combat against North Korean and Chinese troops. The commitment, approved despite domestic strains from Indochina, ended with the armistice on July 27, 1953, affirming France's alignment with Western alliances but diverting limited resources from colonial fronts.[91] Algerian War (1954–1962)
The Algerian War commenced on November 1, 1954 (Toussaint Rouge), with coordinated attacks by the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) on French installations across Algeria, then considered an integral part of France with over 1 million European settlers. Under the Fourth Republic, French troop levels escalated from 50,000 to 400,000 by 1956, employing quadrillage tactics, relocations of 2 million Algerians into camps, and counterterrorism amid FLN guerrilla warfare that claimed 25,000 French lives by 1958. The conflict's intensity, including urban bombings and rural ambushes, fueled domestic polarization and military unrest, precipitating the Republic's fall on October 4, 1958; fighting continued into the Fifth Republic until the Évian Accords in 1962 granted independence.[92]
French Fifth Republic (1958–present)
The French Fifth Republic has participated in a range of military engagements since its establishment on October 4, 1958, including the culmination of decolonization struggles, operations to safeguard interests in former colonies, multinational coalitions against aggression, and counter-terrorism efforts in Africa and beyond. These actions reflect France's doctrine of strategic autonomy, often involving rapid deployments under operations like "Opex" (Opérations Extérieures), with a focus on the Sahel-Saharan region where French forces have conducted over 50 interventions since 1960.[93] While some evolved into prolonged commitments, others were short-term responses to crises, resulting in French casualties exceeding 100 in major operations like those in Afghanistan and Mali.[94] Key conflicts include:- Algerian War (1958–1962): Inherited from the Fourth Republic, this independence struggle involved intense guerrilla warfare against the National Liberation Front (FLN), with French forces employing counter-insurgency tactics amid domestic political turmoil. The conflict ended with the Évian Accords on March 18, 1962, recognizing Algerian sovereignty after referendums confirmed independence on July 1, 1962.[95] [96]
- Bizerte Crisis (1961): A brief clash with Tunisia over the French naval base at Bizerte, escalating to urban combat after Tunisian forces besieged the facility; French paratroopers repelled the attacks, securing the base until its handover in 1963.[97]
- Sand War (1963–1964): Border skirmishes with Algeria over disputed territories like Tindouf, involving artillery exchanges and Moroccan support for France; de-escalated through diplomatic talks without territorial changes.[98]
- Shaba I and II (1977–1978): Interventions in Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) to repel Katangan exiles backed by Angola and Cuban advisors; French and Belgian paratroopers airlifted in to protect the Mobutu regime, restoring order in the Shaba Province.[97]
- Chadian–Libyan Conflict (1969–1987, French phases): Multiple operations (e.g., Tacaud 1978, Manta 1983–1984) against Libyan incursions, deploying up to 5,000 troops to support Chadian forces and enforce ceasefires, culminating in Libya's withdrawal from the Aouzou Strip via UN mediation.[97] [99]
- Persian Gulf War (1990–1991): As part of the UN coalition, France deployed Division Daguet (18,000 personnel, including armored brigades and air forces) under Opération Daguet, contributing to the liberation of Kuwait with ground advances and airstrikes against Iraqi positions.[100] [101]
- Kosovo War (1999): French aircraft and ground troops supported NATO's Operation Allied Force, conducting bombing raids and later peacekeeping in Kosovo Force (KFOR), aiding the withdrawal of Yugoslav forces.[97]
- War in Afghanistan (2001–2014): France committed up to 4,000 troops to NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), engaging Taliban forces in combat operations like the Battle of Tagab; primary withdrawal occurred in 2014 after 86 French fatalities.[94] [102]
- Libyan Civil War (2011): French Rafale jets led NATO's Operation Unified Protector, enforcing a UN-mandated no-fly zone and striking Gaddafi regime targets, contributing to the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi.[97]
- Mali War and Sahel Counter-Terrorism (2013–2022): Initiated with Opération Serval in January 2013 to halt jihadist advances by Ansar Dine and al-Qaeda affiliates, evolving into Opération Barkhane (2014–2022) across Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Chad, and Mauritania; involved 5,000 troops at peak, targeting groups like JNIM, with French forces withdrawing amid local political shifts.[97] [103]