Hubbry Logo
Texas GermansTexas GermansMain
Open search
Texas Germans
Community hub
Texas Germans
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Texas Germans
Texas Germans
Texas Germans
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Texas Germans (German: Texas-Deutsche) are descendants of German Americans who settled in Texas from the 1830s. The arriving Germans tended to cluster in ethnic enclaves; most settled in a broad, fragmented belt across the south-central part of the state, where many became farmers.[1] As of 1990, about three million Texans considered themselves German in ancestry.[2]

Key Information

History

[edit]
Fredericksburg German Quarter

Emigration in force began during the period of the Republic of Texas (1836–1846) following the establishment in 1842 of the Adelsverein (Verein zum Schutze deutscher Einwanderer, Society for the Protection of German Immigrants in Texas) by a group of Germans dedicated to colonizing Texas.[2]

The Adelsverein helped establish German colonies throughout the state, including purchasing the Fisher–Miller Land Grant, some 5,000 square miles between the Colorado and Llano Rivers. In 1847, John O. Meusebach, acting as commissioner of the Adelsverein, negotiated the Meusebach–Comanche Treaty to settle German colonists on the land grant.[3] It remains the only unbroken treaty between European-American colonists and Native Americans.[4]

A large portion of the early settlers following statehood were Forty-Eighters, emigres from the Revolutions of 1848, who dispersed into areas of Central Texas.[5] After generations, German Texans spoke what became known as Texas German (German: Texasdeutsch), a German language dialect that was tied to the historic period of highest immigration. In Germany, the language developed differently from how it did among the relatively isolated ethnic colonies in the US. The dialect has largely died out since the First and Second World Wars, as have many other US German dialects.

Texas Germans were strong abolitionists during the 1850s. In the American Civil War, they opposed martial law and military conscription, and were made victims at the Nueces massacre. After Reconstruction, Texas Germans lived in relative obscurity as teachers, doctors, civil servants, politicians, musicians, farmers, and ranchers.[5] They founded the towns of Bulverde, New Braunfels, Fredericksburg, Boerne, and Comfort in the Texas Hill Country, and Schulenburg, Walburg, and Weimar to the east.

German-American cultural institutions in Texas include the Sophienburg Museum in New Braunfels, the Pioneer Museum in Fredericksburg,[6] the Witte-Schmid Haus Museum in Austin County,[7] the German-Texan Heritage Society,[8] and the Texas German Society.[9]

Black Texas Germans

[edit]
Further information: Black Dutch (genealogy)
Texas Germans aiming pistols; a Black Texas German is on the far left

Texas Germans engaged with Black people economically and socially in the 1800s. Black Texans interacted much easier with Texas Germans than with Anglo-Texans; Black Freedom colonies shared economic ties with Texas German communities, and maintained cordial relationships.[10]

After the Civil War, reports indicate Black Texas German communities in every county of the German belt, also known as the Texas German Country, running from Houston to the Hills Region.[11][12] For Black Texans, speaking Texas German was a means of social mimicry and protection.[10]

Doris Williams, an African American in Bastrop County, recalls:

"We lived near Smithville Texas with my grandparents, and they always referred to people as Dutch... the thing that fascinated me most about them was that they never said anything negative about German people... you know, they would say 'Oh, he's German, you know that German family.' But they never said anything bad about them, and I felt that was unique, because they did say bad things about other people, but not about the Germans."[10]

Black Texans and Texas Germans had a strong political bond, and supported the same political parties. This bond became increasingly crucial, especially during the height of anti-German sentiment in the 1920s when the Ku Klux Klan began persecuting Texas Germans, seeking to eliminate the Texas German ethnicity in Texas. The Black-German alliance gave Black and German communities mutual protection.[10]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Texas Germans

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Texas Germans, also known as Texasdeutsche, are the descendants of immigrants from various German states and principalities who settled in Texas beginning in the early 1830s, with the largest organized migration occurring in the 1840s under the auspices of the , a society formed to promote German colonization in the region. These settlers, often fleeing political unrest and seeking economic opportunity, established self-sustaining communities in the , including towns like New Braunfels and Fredericksburg, where they introduced advanced farming techniques, , and craftsmanship adapted to the local environment. Distinguished by their resistance to assimilation, Texas Germans maintained a distinct cultural identity through the preservation of the Texas German dialect—a Low German-influenced variant of High German spoken into the —along with featuring fachwerk construction, communal singing societies (Sängerbunds), and annual festivals such as Schützenfeste and Oktoberfests that emphasized marksmanship, music, and beer brewing. Economically, they pioneered industries like and production, commercial baking, and early Texas , while their emphasis on education led to the founding of numerous academies and Vereine (associations) that fostered intellectual and social cohesion. Politically, many Texas Germans, influenced by the liberal , opposed slavery and secession, aligning with Unionist sentiments during the Civil War, which resulted in reprisals from Confederate forces and internal community divisions. Today, individuals claiming German ancestry constitute a significant portion of Texas's population, estimated at over 2.4 million, reflecting enduring demographic and cultural legacies despite pressures of and World War-era .

Immigration and Early Settlement

Initial Arrivals and Motivations (1830s–1840s)

The initial phase of German immigration to occurred as a modest trickle of individuals and families in the 1830s, distinct from the later organized colonization efforts. Johann Friedrich Ernst, a native of Oldenburg in northwestern , is regarded as the first permanent German settler, arriving in 1831 and securing a 4,428-acre (one league) in F. Austin's colony in present-day Austin County. He established the community of Industry, recognized as Texas's oldest German settlement, where he farmed and built a family home that still stands. Ernst's decision to settle reflected broader attractions of Texas's empresario system, which offered generous grants—up to 4,428 acres for married heads of household—to encourage colonization under Mexican rule. Primary motivations for these early arrivals centered on economic prospects unavailable in the fragmented German states, where , , and feudal land restrictions limited opportunities for small farmers and artisans. and subsequent settlers sought self-sufficient homesteads on fertile, inexpensive land, often fleeing rural poverty and high taxes in regions like and . Political factors also played a role for some, including dissatisfaction with authoritarian monarchies and suppression of liberal movements, such as the 1832 protests against censorship and for unification; himself had faced scrutiny for reformist leanings before emigrating. His promotional letters, published in German newspapers between 1834 and 1837, idealized as a "winterless" paradise with abundant resources, drawing kin like his nephew Charles Fordtran and others to nearby areas such as Cummins Creek and Cat Spring by the mid-1830s. By the early 1840s, the German population in numbered only a few hundred, concentrated in isolated rural enclaves rather than urban centers, with immigrants arriving via ports like New Orleans rather than direct from . A small number participated in the (1835–1836), aligning with Anglo colonists against centralist Mexican policies; examples include Germans in the Alamo garrison, such as defenders honored for their role in the March 1836 siege, and Gustav Bunsen, who joined rebel forces after arriving in 1835 and fought in campaigns along the . These early immigrants prioritized rapid adaptation to frontier conditions, including interactions with Native American groups and Anglo neighbors, laying groundwork for cultural persistence amid sparse numbers.

Organized Colonization Efforts

The Society for the Protection of German Immigrants in Texas, commonly known as the Adelsverein, initiated the principal organized colonization efforts by Germans in Texas. Provisionally formed on April 20, 1842, by twenty-one German noblemen meeting at Biebrich am Rhein, the organization sought to direct emigration from economically strained regions of Germany to Texas, aiming to establish independent German settlements that would provide agricultural opportunities and cultural continuity for immigrants. In December 1842, the purchased 4,428 acres on the Lavaca River from the for initial settlement. By June 1843, it acquired colonization rights to the Fisher-Miller , covering roughly 3,000,000 acres between the Llano and rivers, committing to settle 600 families within three years while prohibiting in the territory. , appointed commissioner-general in March 1844, oversaw the arrival of the first shiploads of immigrants at Indianola and Galveston in late 1844, founding New Braunfels on March 1, 1845, as a central hub for distribution and administration. John O. Meusebach replaced Prince Carl in 1845 and directed the establishment of Fredericksburg on May 8, 1846, approximately 60 miles northwest of New Braunfels, to anchor settlements in the Hill Country. Meusebach's 1847 treaty with leaders secured temporary peace, enabling further inland expansion despite persistent threats from Native American groups. Between 1845 and 1847, the facilitated the transport of over 7,000 immigrants, primarily farmers and artisans from various German states, though operations faltered due to mounting debts, supply shortages, disease outbreaks, and the uncharted nature of the Fisher-Miller lands. Additional attempts included five communal settlements—Bettina, Castell, Leiningen, Meerholz, and Schoenburg—established in 1847 along the , inspired by utopian ideals but undermined by internal conflicts, crop failures, and isolation. Financial insolvency led to the society's effective dissolution by 1848, with assets liquidated to pay creditors, yet its initiatives populated key areas of and preserved German ethnic enclaves distinct from Anglo-American influences.

Post-Civil War Influx

Following the , German immigration to resumed in 1865 after a near-complete halt during the conflict due to disrupted shipping, commerce, and communication. From 1865 to the early , approximately 40,000 arrived, surpassing the total influx of the preceding thirty years despite the earlier organized efforts. This postwar wave represented the largest European immigrant group to the state during that period, driven by chain migration encouraged by letters from established settlers describing abundant land and economic prospects. The primary motivations were economic, as many Germans faced limited opportunities in a homeland constrained by social hierarchies, rural overpopulation, and periodic crises such as the long depression beginning in 1873. Political factors played a lesser role compared to the 1840s revolutions, though dissatisfaction with Otto von Bismarck's militaristic policies and universal conscription contributed to emigration from Prussian-dominated regions. Unlike earlier rural pioneers, postwar arrivals increasingly bypassed the saturated Hill Country, opting for urban centers like —where Germans already comprised about one-third of the population by the 1880s—and ports such as Galveston and , facilitating easier integration into trade and industry. New settlements emerged in less populated areas, including ethnic enclaves in north central, northern, and western ; for instance, the Catholic-sponsored colony of Muenster in Cooke County was founded in the 1880s, while Marienfeld (later Stanton) was established in 1881 in the High Plains by settlers seeking cotton farming opportunities. These immigrants bolstered the "German Belt" across south-central but diversified into prairie and urban frontiers, contributing to demographic shifts that by 1900 made persons of German ancestry about one-third of the state's population. Immigration tapered off in the 1890s amid improving conditions in and rising U.S. restrictions, though the postwar arrivals solidified German cultural and economic influence in .

Major Settlements and Demographics

Central Texas and Hill Country Communities

The Central Texas and Texas Hill Country regions encompass the core of Texas German settlement, featuring clustered rural and small-town communities established largely by the Adelsverein between 1844 and 1847. These areas, stretching from the Balcones Escarpment westward, attracted immigrants seeking fertile lands, water sources, and defensive terrain, resulting in a distinct "German Belt" of agricultural hamlets and market towns. Predominantly Protestant and Catholic settlers from regions like Westphalia, Rhineland, and Saxony formed self-sustaining enclaves focused on farming, viticulture, and craftsmanship, with limited initial intermarriage outside German groups. New Braunfels, in Comal County, stands as one of the earliest and largest such hubs, founded on March 21, 1845, under the leadership of and surveyor Nicolaus Zink. Initial settlers numbered 300–400, growing to approximately 2,000 by the 1880s through continued immigration and natural increase; by 2000, the city's population reached 36,494, though German cultural markers like the Germania Singing Society (established 1860s) and annual Wurstfest (begun 1961) underscore enduring heritage amid broader demographic shifts. Similarly, Fredericksburg, in Gillespie County, was laid out in 1846 by John O. Meusebach, drawing about 1,000 settlers within two years who constructed Rhine-inspired Fachwerk homes and the central Vereins-Kirche. Its population expanded from 1,632 in 1904 to 8,911 in 2000 and 11,257 by the 2020 census, with the county totaling 26,725 residents, many tracing direct descent from original immigrants and preserving elements like the Texas German dialect and tradition dating to the . Smaller Hill Country outposts further exemplify this pattern, including Boerne (Kendall County, settled mid-1840s), Comfort (also Kendall, founded 1850s by freethinkers), and Castell (Llano County, 1847), where isolated farms and villages emphasized communal mutual aid societies (Vereine) and resisted rapid Americanization. Historical records indicate overwhelming German majorities in these locales by 1870—Gillespie County at 86 percent, Comal at 79 percent, Kendall at 62 percent—fostering prolonged use of German in schools, churches, and newspapers until World War I pressures accelerated assimilation. Modern demographics reflect diluted but persistent ancestry, with statewide German claims at 17.5 percent in 1990 (2,951,726 individuals), concentrated in these counties alongside economic diversification into tourism and wine production that leverages heritage sites.

Urban and Other Regional Concentrations

In San Antonio, German immigrants formed one of the state's largest urban concentrations, comprising approximately one-third of the city's population by 1880. Between 1847 and 1861, over 7,000 Germans settled there, accounting for about one-third of Bexar County's population and establishing socially cohesive communities often isolated from Anglo and Hispanic residents. Prominent neighborhoods included the King William Historic District, developed in the mid-to-late 19th century by affluent German merchants such as the Groos, Joske, and Steves families, who built elaborate homes reflecting their economic success in trade and banking. The Lavaca and La Villita districts also saw substantial German settlement starting in the 1840s, with middle-class immigrants constructing homes and businesses amid the city's expanding economy. Houston hosted early German settlements as part of the broader "German Belt" extending eastward from the Hill Country, with immigrants arriving in the and post-Civil War influxes bolstering numbers through the . Cultural institutions, such as the German Cemetery (renamed Washington Cemetery after due to ), evidenced community persistence despite assimilation pressures. By the late , Germans in and similar urban centers outnumbered their rural counterparts proportionally, driven by economic opportunities in commerce and industry. Galveston functioned primarily as a coastal entry for German immigrants from the 1840s onward, with many arrivals in 1844–1847 disembarking there before proceeding inland, though some established permanent communities. Post-1865 migrations, totaling around 40,000 Germans statewide through the 1890s, included settlements in Galveston County, where German descent contributed to the area's diverse ethnic makeup alongside English and Irish groups. Other regional concentrations appeared in Austin, integrated into the German Belt with early rural extensions urbanizing over time, and scattered coastal or eastern enclaves formed by secondary migrations from established Texas German areas into the 1920s. These urban and peripheral groups contrasted with the denser Hill Country rural settlements, reflecting adaptive shifts toward city-based livelihoods while maintaining ethnic networks.

Interactions with Other Groups, Including Black Texas Germans

Texas Germans generally maintained amicable relations with Native American tribes in the Hill Country, exemplified by the Meusebach-Comanche Treaty of May 9, 1847, negotiated by German colonizer John O. Meusebach with leaders, which secured peaceful settlement rights and enabled farming without widespread raids that plagued Anglo frontiersmen. This treaty, ratified without U.S. government involvement, reflected pragmatic diplomacy rooted in mutual economic interests, as Germans traded goods and avoided the aggressive expansionism of other settlers, though broader colonization efforts displaced indigenous groups over time. Relations with Mexican Texans and were limited and often indirect, with German settlements clustering in upland areas away from riverine communities, though some economic exchanges occurred in where Germans comprised about one-third of the population by 1861. Cultural fusions emerged later, such as in music blending German with Mexican styles by the late 1800s, driven by shared rural labor and festivals. During the Civil War, anti-secessionist Germans occasionally fled southward toward , but no large-scale alliances formed. Interactions with African Americans were markedly less hostile than those with Anglo-Texans, owing to the Germans' widespread opposition to slavery—fewer than 5% of German households owned slaves by 1860—and post-emancipation economic partnerships in Central Texas, where Black freedom colonies traded cotton, labor, and goods with German farmers. Credit ledgers from the late 19th century document Germans extending land deals and loans to freedmen, fostering interdependence in river basins where African descendants outnumbered others by the 1860s. This relative amity stemmed from shared agrarian interests and Germans' ethnic outsider status, which reduced the rigid racial hierarchies enforced by native-born whites. " Texas Germans" refers to who acquired fluency in Texas German dialects, often for practical integration into German-dominated economies and social clubs persisting into the , where was requisite for participation. Enslaved individuals learned the language through proximity in mixed settlements during the , while post-1865, freedmen adopted it for in German farms or as a protective to navigate white spaces, with documented cases in counties like Fayette and where German speakers outnumbered English-only counterparts among laborers. By the early , such bilingualism facilitated interethnic marriages and business ventures, though it declined with assimilation pressures; at least one Texas German speaker survived into the . These dynamics highlight causal economic incentives over ideological affinity, as Germans prioritized self-sufficiency and labor access amid Texas's post-Reconstruction demographics.

Cultural Retention and Contributions

Language, Education, and Intellectual Life

Texas German, a dialect cluster derived from the regional variants spoken by 19th-century immigrants from northern and central , as well as other areas, developed in isolated Hill Country settlements and persisted as a marker of ethnic identity. This dialect retained archaic features from the settlers' origins while incorporating English loanwords for local , , and , reflecting to the Texas environment without full assimilation to . Language retention was bolstered by endogamous marriages, geographic isolation, and institutional use in churches—where 145 congregations offered German services as late as 1917—and social networks that limited English exposure until the early . Peak usage reached about 160,000 speakers by 1940, but intergenerational transmission ceased amid nativism and a state ban on German-language instruction in public schools, reducing fluent speakers to fewer than 10,000 by 2020, with extinction projected by 2035. German settlers prioritized education, founding bilingual academies and parochial schools that emphasized literacy in German alongside practical skills, drawing on the high educational standards of their homeland. In San Antonio, the German-English School established in 1858 provided free instruction rooted in Protestant religious principles and dual-language proficiency, serving as a model for community-funded education in settlements like New Braunfels and Fredericksburg. These institutions, often affiliated with Lutheran or Catholic churches, taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and catechism in German until state-mandated English immersion post-1918 eroded their primacy, though private German tutoring persisted in rural areas into the 1940s. Texas Germans exhibited literacy rates exceeding those of native-born Texans, enabling the proliferation of Vereine (societies) for mutual aid, gymnastics, and debate that fostered intellectual discipline. Intellectual life among Texas Germans centered on and communal discourse, with over two dozen German-language newspapers launched between the and early 1900s in hubs like , Austin, New Braunfels, and La Grange, disseminating news, agricultural advice, and political commentary to sustain ethnic cohesion. The Freie Presse für Texas, founded in in 1865 by August Siemering, exemplified this tradition, printing almost exclusively in German and reaching thousands of subscribers across south-central until its English transition in the 1940s. Literary output included , memoirs, and scientific essays, such as Ferdinand Roemer's contributions to American journals on in the , alongside anthologies compiling writings that preserved dialectal prose and reflected themes of hardship and adaptation. Freethinker circles and Turnvereine (gymnastic clubs) promoted rational inquiry and classical learning, influencing anti-secessionist advocacy, though these waned with linguistic assimilation by the mid-20th century. Modern preservation efforts, like the University of Texas's Texas German Dialect Project initiated in 2001, document oral histories and artifacts to counter the dialect's moribund state.

Festivals, Cuisine, and Social Customs

Texas Germans have preserved numerous festivals rooted in their ancestral traditions, particularly in settlements like Fredericksburg and New Braunfels. The annual in Fredericksburg, held over three days in early October, features German music, artisan vendors, games, and over 50 varieties of beers, drawing on Bavarian customs adapted to local contexts. Similarly, Wurstfest in New Braunfels, established in 1961 and spanning ten days in November, celebrates sausage-making heritage with oompah bands, parades, and family-oriented events, reflecting the community's emphasis on communal feasting and folk entertainment. Earlier precedents include the 1853 Saengerfest and Volkfest, large gatherings of singing societies that fostered cultural continuity among immigrants. Cuisine among Texas Germans blends recipes with available ingredients, prioritizing self-sufficiency in sausage production, , and . Traditional dishes include handmade and other s smoked or fresh, often served with , , and adaptations like substituting for due to regional staples. Breakfast staples such as Pan Haus—a hash of potatoes, sausage, onions, and eggs—emerged as a hearty meal, while desserts like Apfelkuchen () and cake persist in local eateries. , integral to social life, saw early communal efforts yielding styles akin to German lagers, though corn-based substitutes occasionally replaced barley. Social customs emphasize community organizations and rituals, notably Schützenvereine (shooting clubs), which Texas Germans imported from 19th-century Europe to promote marksmanship, fellowship, and festivals. The New Braunfels Schützen Verein, founded in the 1840s and considered the oldest continuously operating such club in the U.S., hosts annual Schützenfeste with target shooting competitions using antique rifles, followed by dances and banquets that reinforce ethnic bonds. Over 200 such societies dotted Texas by the late 19th century, serving as venues for holiday observances, mutual aid, and youth training in discipline and precision. Family-centric practices, including church attendance at Lutheran or Catholic congregations and harvest-time gatherings, further sustained endogamy and dialect use, though intermarriage has diluted some elements over generations.

Architecture, Music, and Arts

Texas German architecture prominently features vernacular styles adapted from Central European traditions, particularly fachwerk or half-timbering, where timber frames are filled with stone, brick, or plaster using local materials like and cedar. Concentrations of such structures persist in settlements like Fredericksburg, Comfort, and New Braunfels, with examples including early homesteads and public buildings dating to the mid-19th century. In New Braunfels, notable edifices include the First Protestant Church constructed in 1875 and the Comal County Courthouse built in 1898, reflecting durable adaptations to the environment. German Texan music preserves folk traditions such as and dances, accompanied by instruments including the , button box, and brass ensembles that emphasize communal participation in social halls. These forms, imported by 19th-century immigrants, integrated into through events like Saengerfests—choral festivals—and dance halls, with evolving as a shared element among German, Czech, and Polish communities by the late 1800s. Classical influences also appeared, with immigrants fostering orchestras and operas in urban centers, though rural areas prioritized participatory folk genres over elite performances. In the arts, Texas Germans contributed through craftsmanship in handmade furniture and , utilizing techniques from pre-industrial German workshops to produce items like cabinets and benches from native woods. The of Texas Handmade Furniture in New Braunfels documents these practices, highlighting how immigrant artisans combined European skills with frontier resources starting in the . extended to decorative carving and metalwork in shooting clubs and festival wares, maintaining utilitarian aesthetics tied to agricultural and social life rather than abstract fine arts. While and saw some 19th-century output, like these crafts better exemplifies enduring, evidence-based cultural retention over ephemeral expressions.

Political Stances and Civil War Role

Pre-War Anti-Slavery Advocacy

Many German immigrants to Texas in the 1840s and 1850s, particularly the "Forty-Eighters" who fled the failed European , brought with them liberal ideals that clashed with the institution of , viewing it as a moral and economic evil antithetical to free labor and personal liberty. These settlers, concentrated in the Hill Country and around , often expressed opposition through public resolutions and print media, fostering tensions with pro-slavery Anglo-Texans who perceived such views as disloyalty to Southern interests. While not unanimous—some Germans owned slaves or accommodated the system for economic reasons—the predominant stance among intellectual and political leaders emphasized abolition, albeit often gradual and compensated to avoid immediate disruption. A pivotal moment came at the first Texas Staats-Sängerfest, a German state singing festival held in on May 14–15, 1854, where delegates from various communities convened and adopted a formal resolution declaring "an evil" that required removal. The resolution urged that, should a state resolve to abolish , it could seek federal assistance, specifically compensation to owners for freed slaves, while opposing federal interference in states where the institution persisted. This platform, ratified by representatives from multiple German settlements, reflected a consensus among attendees that hindered societal progress, though it stopped short of immediate to maintain internal unity. The declaration intensified Anglo suspicions, with pro- newspapers decrying it as incendiary and questioning German allegiance to . German-language newspapers amplified this advocacy, serving as forums for anti- arguments tailored to immigrant audiences. Adolf Douai, a radical Forty-Eighter and editor of the San Antonio Zeitung starting in 1853, exemplified strident opposition through editorials that condemned outright, portraying it as barbaric and incompatible with republican values; his writings, sometimes reprinted in English, provoked boycotts, threats from Know-Nothings, and his forced departure from in 1856. Other publications, such as those edited by Ferdinand Lindheimer, took more moderate positions—defending 's existence but opposing its expansion or the reopening of the African slave trade—yet still contributed to a broader discourse challenging the peculiar institution. These efforts, rooted in Enlightenment-influenced , positioned Texas Germans as a vocal minority against the tide of Southern expansionism, though practical accommodations like limited slaveholding persisted among some for agricultural viability.

Unionism, Secession Opposition, and Key Conflicts

Texas Germans in the Hill Country exhibited strong Unionist sentiments leading up to the Civil War, rooted in their predominantly anti-slavery views and aversion to the expansion of plantation economies that threatened smallholder farming. Many were recent immigrants, including Forty-Eighters—German liberals who fled the failed revolutions—and freethinkers who prioritized individual liberty and opposed human bondage as incompatible with Enlightenment principles. In Gillespie County, a hub of German settlement centered on Fredericksburg, voters rejected secession overwhelmingly on February 23, 1861, casting 400 votes against and only 17 in favor, reflecting broader resistance in counties like Kendall and Kerr where Germans formed majorities. Following Texas's ordinance on February 1, 1861, and the Confederate acts of 1862, Unionist Germans faced escalating pressures, including forced enlistment and harassment by pro-Confederate neighbors. Refusal to serve often led to arrests, property seizures, or extrajudicial , prompting some to form informal loyal leagues or for exemptions, though formal records of such petitions are sparse amid the chaos. was most pronounced in Bexar, , and Hill Country precincts, where Germans comprised up to 90% of eligible voters and actively resisted Confederate authority through desertions and sabotage. The most notorious conflict arose from these tensions: the Nueces skirmish, often termed the , on August 10, 1862. A party of 61 German Unionists, primarily from Comfort and Fredericksburg in Kendall and Gillespie counties, set out in late July under Major Fritz Tegener—a Prussian-born county treasurer and Union Loyal League organizer—to evade conscription and reach , from where they hoped to join Union forces or seek refuge. Pursued by Confederate Captain James Duff's frontier rangers, the group encamped unsentried along the in Kinney County; at dawn, Duff's 100-man force attacked, killing two Confederates but routing the Germans, who suffered 19 immediate deaths and nine wounded. The wounded were later tracked, executed without quarter, bringing total German fatalities to approximately 35, with survivors scattering into the brush amid reports of deliberate mutilations. This incident, one of the deadliest suppressions of Unionism in , underscored the ethnic and ideological divide, as Anglo-Confederate militias targeted German communities suspected of disloyalty. Similar skirmishes and hangings occurred elsewhere, such as in Kerr County, but the Nueces event symbolized the brutal enforcement of loyalty, deterring overt resistance while fueling postwar grievances among survivors who rebuilt under Reconstruction. No formal trials followed for the perpetrators, highlighting the wartime breakdown of legal norms in remote frontiers.

Minority Confederate Support and Internal Divisions

Although the majority of Texas Germans opposed and maintained Unionist loyalties rooted in anti- convictions, a minority aligned with the Confederacy, often in regions with greater assimilation into Anglo-Texan society or with Southern interests. This support was most evident in areas like Comal County (New Braunfels), where approximately 260 German men enlisted across three companies under captains Theodore Podewils, Gustav Hoffmann, and Friedrich Heidemeyer, noted for their discipline and combat effectiveness. Notable figures included Colonel Augustus C. Buchel, who led the 1st Texas Cavalry Regiment, and Captain Julius Giesecke of Comal County, serving in Sibley's Brigade. Factors motivating this minority included prior tolerance of among longer-settled Germans, defense of local property against perceived Union threats, and pressures that compelled enlistment despite ideological opposition. Internal divisions within German-Texan communities deepened pre-war splits over , pitting newer anti-slavery immigrants against older settlers more accommodating to the institution, and escalated into familial fractures during the conflict. Families often divided, with brothers or relatives serving opposing sides; for example, some kin joined Confederate units for survival or assimilation while others evaded drafts or attempted flight to . In 1863, roughly 800 men in Colorado, Fayette, and Austin counties resisted the Confederate conscript law by taking up arms, prompting declarations and further alienating pro-Confederate factions. These rifts fueled local violence, as seen in Anglo-German distrust and skirmishes like the August 10, 1862, Battle of the Nueces, where Confederate forces pursued and defeated a party of 68 fleeing Unionist from Kerr and surrounding counties, resulting in 35 deaths and subsequent executions of the wounded. Such events underscored the causal tensions between ideological commitments to unionism and pragmatic alignments with state authority, exacerbating community fragmentation that persisted beyond the war.

Economic and Societal Impact

Agricultural Innovations and Self-Sufficiency

German immigrants in nineteenth-century established small, family-operated farms averaging 120 to 160 acres, emphasizing diversified production for self-sufficiency rather than large-scale cash cropping. These operations integrated crop cultivation, rearing, orchards, and gardens, with typical allocations including 10 to 12 acres for corn as a staple, alongside smaller plots for , , and garden produce. This approach contrasted sharply with Anglo-American plantation , which focused on monoculture and relied on enslaved labor, as avoided and prioritized subsistence to mitigate risks from variable Texas soils and weather. In the German Belt stretching from the Gulf Coast to the Hill Country, settlers adapted European techniques to local conditions, fostering resilience through mixed pastoral and horticultural systems supplemented by hunting and foraging. Communities like New Braunfels (founded 1845) and Fredericksburg (1846), sponsored by the , exemplified this model, where farms supported entire households without dependence on external markets for basics. , including cattle, provided dairy, meat, and draft power, while garden plots ensured year-round vegetable access, reducing vulnerability to crop failures common in monocultural systems. Agricultural innovations among Texas Germans included sustainable soil management practices, such as and manure fertilization drawn from and other regional traditions, which preserved fertility in marginal Hill Country terrains where erosion threatened productivity. These methods, superior to contemporaneous practices of exhaustion via continuous planting, enabled higher per-acre yields and long-term viability, as evidenced by prosperous German farmsteads by 1860. Experimental and orchards, attempted in areas like Marienfeld (1881), introduced fruit varieties but often faltered due to droughts, underscoring adaptations like diversified planting to buffer environmental hazards. Self-sufficiency extended beyond field production to on-farm processing and communal cooperation, with settlers constructing gristmills and smokehouses to handle grains, meats, and independently. This holistic system not only sustained populations during isolation—such as pre-railroad eras—but also laid foundations for a robust rural , as German areas outperformed neighbors in stability and output diversity by the late 1800s.

Industrial and Commercial Developments

German settlers in Texas pursued industrial and commercial developments through small-scale manufacturing, processing facilities, and artisanal trades that complemented their agricultural base. In early settlements, they established gristmills and sawmills as foundational businesses; for example, Ernst Altgelt founded a gristmill in Comfort in 1852, supporting local grain processing. Similarly, in New Braunfels, German immigrants rapidly developed trades and shops, including C. H. Guenther's Pioneer Flour Mills, operational since 1851 and utilizing water-powered grinding for wheat and corn. Brewing emerged as a prominent commercial sector, leveraging German expertise in lager production. The state's first brewery opened in New Braunfels in 1847, catering to immigrant communities. Heinrich Ludwig Kreische, a German stonemason who arrived in 1849, expanded into commercial brewing in La Grange during the 1860s, producing beer alongside his brick manufacturing. In Shiner, Kosmos Spoetzl, a Bavarian-trained brewmaster, purchased and renamed the local brewery in 1914, introducing Shiner Bock in 1913 using traditional German methods. These operations distributed products regionally, fostering economic ties within German enclaves. Urban German entrepreneurs further diversified commerce. In , A. Menger, an immigrant cooper, established a in the 1850s and constructed the in 1859, which became a hub for trade and hospitality. By the late , German-founded businesses in towns like Fredericksburg included mercantile stores and early utilities, such as the town's first electric-light company in 1896 and ice factory in 1907, reflecting sustained commercial growth. These ventures, often family-operated, emphasized quality craftsmanship and self-sufficiency, contributing to the economic resilience of German Texas communities.

Challenges and Controversies

Conflicts with Native Americans and Expansionism

German immigrants to Texas, arriving primarily in the 1840s under the auspices of the Adelsverein society, established settlements such as New Braunfels in 1845 and Fredericksburg in 1846 on the edge of the Comanche frontier, exposing them to frequent raids by Penateka Comanches and Lipan Apaches seeking to defend their hunting grounds and resist encroachment. These nomadic tribes, controlling vast territories in central and western Texas, conducted hit-and-run attacks on isolated farms and wagon trains, resulting in the deaths of dozens of settlers and the capture of others, including children; for instance, in the years preceding major treaties, Comanche warriors targeted German pioneers for livestock and scalps, contributing to a climate of insecurity that delayed agricultural development. While Anglo-American settlers often responded with aggressive ranger expeditions, German leaders emphasized defensive militias and diplomacy, reflecting a cultural aversion to prolonged warfare rooted in their recent experiences with European conflicts. A pivotal effort to mitigate these conflicts occurred in 1847 when John O. Meusebach, the Adelsverein's commissioner-general, negotiated the Meusebach-Comanche Treaty on May 9 with Penateka chiefs at the Council Springs near present-day San Saba. This agreement, ratified without U.S. or government involvement, permitted German settlers safe passage through lands in exchange for annual gifts valued at approximately $1,000 in goods and mutual commitments to report horse thieves and cease hostilities; it effectively opened over three million acres of the Fisher-Miller for colonization, marking the first treaty between European immigrants and Texas Indians that endured without immediate breach by either party. Meusebach's unarmed delegation, including interpreters like Friedrich Schubbert, demonstrated trust-building through trade and respect for tribal customs, contrasting with the militarized approaches of contemporaries like Texas Ranger . The treaty reduced large-scale raids in the immediate vicinity of German Hill Country towns for several years, allowing settlements to expand northward and westward. Despite this diplomatic success, conflicts persisted due to non-signatory bands, Apache rivalries with Comanches, and the inexorable pressure of ; raids resumed sporadically in the 1850s as German farms multiplied, with U.S. Army campaigns under figures like ultimately eroding Comanche power through fortified posts and buffalo herd decimation. Notable incidents included the 1870 Apache abduction of 11-year-old near Fredericksburg, who was taken during a field raid, lived among Apaches and later Comanches for nine years, and exemplified the ongoing vulnerability of families even decades after the . German participation in these dynamics facilitated broader Texan expansionism, as their secured lands formed a buffer for further Anglo settlement, displacing indigenous groups through habitat loss and resource competition rather than solely through combat; by 1860, German enclaves had pushed the effective 100 miles westward, aligning with U.S. policies despite the settlers' initial pacifist leanings. This expansion, while enabling economic self-sufficiency, underscored the causal reality that immigration-driven land claims inevitably provoked resistance from established Native polities, with German pragmatism tempering but not eliminating the resultant violence.

Discrimination During World Wars

Upon the ' entry into on April 6, 1917, ethnic Germans in , who constituted approximately 5% of the state's population, faced heightened suspicion owing to their maintenance of German-language institutions and historical aversion to . groups perpetrated beatings, whippings, and murders against individuals accused of disloyalty, including those who criticized the or refused to buy Liberty Bonds. The responded with House Bill 304 in 1919, banning German-language instruction in public schools, colleges, and universities, with daily fines of $25 to $100 for violations. Government scrutiny extended to public officials; State Librarian Christian Klaerner resigned on , 1918, after investigation by the Central Investigating Committee for alleged pro-German sympathies, while legislator Henry J. Neinast was expelled from the Texas House in 1919 by a 114-13 vote for draft obstruction. German heritage clubs (Vereine) disbanded under social pressure, and public use of the was discouraged. In Catholic communities such as Muenster, Lindsay, and Pilot Point, residents anglicized names—e.g., Josef Franz Bezner to Joseph Frank—to evade prejudice, while schools in Denton banned German programs, accelerating . World War II revived anti-German measures following Pearl Harbor, though less violently than in 1917; some Texas residents of German descent, deemed enemy aliens, encountered travel restrictions and property seizures. Select families were interned at the Crystal City Family Internment Camp near Zavala County, which held German ethnics among its peak population of 3,326 internees in May 1945, including those repatriated from Latin America. In Gainesville, Cooke County Commissioner Joseph Frank Bezner faced targeted harassment, such as a sign reading "Fix this Nazi" on his home from 1938 to 1941. Lingering bias persisted postwar, as German Catholic veterans from Lindsay and Muenster— including four Felderhoff siblings, one killed in action—were excluded from Cooke County's 1946 honor roll publication despite their service.

Assimilation Pressures and Cultural Clashes

German immigrant communities in , particularly in the Hill Country, initially maintained distinct cultural practices through private parochial schools that emphasized instruction in German and the publication of over 100 German-language newspapers by the late . These institutions fostered ethnic cohesion but engendered friction with Anglo-Texans, who perceived the limited English usage in rural enclaves—where some areas spoke little English as late as —as a barrier to integration and a sign of divided loyalties. World War I accelerated assimilation pressures amid nationwide anti-German hysteria following U.S. entry in April 1917, with German-Texans—numbering about 5% of the state's population—facing rumors of , fears, and vigilante actions against suspected "disloyal" elements. State laws, including a mandate for English-only public school instruction, closed German-language schools and compelled newspapers to abandon German editions, while heritage organizations disbanded under social and legal duress. Governor William P. Hobby's 1919 veto of university funding for further institutionalized these restrictions, framing them as necessary for wartime unity despite the communities' prior Unionist history. Cultural clashes intensified during this period, rooted in Anglo demands for rapid clashing with German emphases on , folk traditions, and communal , which some viewed as clannish rather than mere preservation. Pre-war differences, such as German opposition to —given their brewing heritage and social drinking customs—had already strained relations with temperance-advocating Anglos, but wartime rhetoric recast these as unpatriotic holdouts. World War II renewed suppressions, with Texas banning German-language teaching in schools, hastening the erosion of the Texas German dialect, a Low German variant spoken fluently by fewer than 10,000 people today, mostly elderly residents. These pressures, compounded by out-migration for economic opportunities and intermarriage, eroded ethnic distinctiveness, though isolated communities like Fredericksburg retained elements of German architecture and festivals amid broader homogenization.

Modern Legacy

Heritage Preservation and Festivals

The German-Texan Heritage Society, established in Austin, actively promotes the preservation of German cultural heritage in Texas through educational programs, including classes for adults and children, and historical events. This organization hosts annual gatherings such as Maifest, , and a to sustain traditions brought by 19th-century immigrants. Similarly, local conservation groups like the New Braunfels Conservation Society maintain 19th-century German-Texan structures, offering tours that highlight authentic architecture and artifacts from early settlements. Museums play a central role in heritage preservation, with the Pioneer Museum in Fredericksburg exhibiting relics and reconstructed pioneer homes from German settlers who arrived in the 1840s, illustrating their agricultural and domestic practices. Efforts also extend to linguistic preservation, as Texas German—a distinct from modern High German—faces decline, prompting initiatives to document and teach it amid generational shifts toward English dominance since the mid-20th century. Cultural festivals reinforce these preservation activities, drawing on customs adapted to contexts. Wurstfest in New Braunfels, held annually from November 7 to 16, features German sausages, , polka music, and oompah bands across multiple stages, celebrating the sausage-making traditions of immigrant communities. Brenham's Maifest, the state's oldest German heritage festival dating to 1874, includes dances, parades, and carnival elements rooted in spring rites from German principalities. events in Fredericksburg and Austin further perpetuate gardens, folk dances, and brass bands, with Fredericksburg's version emphasizing the town's founding by the in 1846. These gatherings, often organized by descendant societies, sustain communal identity against historical assimilation forces.

Demographic Persistence and Influence Today

As of the , approximately 2.6 million residents reported German ancestry, making it the second-largest European ethnic group in the state after English ancestry. This figure equates to roughly 9 percent of 's population of 29.1 million, concentrated particularly in central and south-central regions such as the Hill Country. While intermarriage and have led to widespread assimilation over generations, self-reported ancestry data indicate sustained demographic recognition of German roots among a substantial minority. The Texas German dialect, a Low German variant influenced by regional immigration patterns from the 1840s onward, persists among fewer than 5,000 speakers, predominantly elderly individuals in rural communities. Linguistic studies project its extinction within the next decade due to lack of intergenerational transmission, exacerbated by historical restrictions on German-language education during and II. Despite this linguistic decline, cultural markers endure through annual events like in Fredericksburg and New Braunfels, which draw hundreds of thousands of visitors and sustain local economies via tied to German-themed , , and folk traditions. In contemporary Texas society, German heritage influences are most evident in preserved vernacular buildings, brewing industries, and community organizations such as schützenvereine (shooting clubs), which maintain 19th-century customs. Politically, distinct German-Texan voting patterns from the 19th century—marked by Unionist leanings and opposition to secession—have dissipated through assimilation into broader Texan conservatism, with no organized ethnic bloc influencing state elections today. Economic legacies include contributions to and in German-settled counties, where family-owned enterprises reflect entrepreneurial traits from immigrant forebears, though these are increasingly indistinguishable from non-German Texan businesses.

References

  1. https://www.texasalmanac.com/articles/german-texans
  2. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/germans
  3. https://thc.texas.gov/blog/german-historical-sites-hill-country-region
  4. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/items/b7d804f7-02c2-4061-80c8-5cca6d02d625
  5. https://texashighways.com/culture/history/german-immigrants-bucked-texas-conventions-to-create-their-own-communities/
  6. https://www.depts.ttu.edu/international/intlopr/k-12geo/documents/prepost_resources/GTT/GTTPreVisitActivityGermany.pdf
  7. https://vrhc2.uhv.edu/family-history/germans/
  8. https://www.uiw.edu/sanantonio/SanAntoniosGermanImmigrantsandSecession.html
  9. https://worldpopulationreview.com/state-rankings/german-population-by-state
  10. https://www.texasmonthly.com/being-texan/letter-that-brought-many-germans-to-texas-was-lie/
  11. https://www.expressnews.com/news/texas/article/alamo-german-defenders-19846405.php
  12. https://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1158&context=ethj
  13. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/adelsverein
  14. https://www.tshaonline.org/texas-day-by-day/entry/644
  15. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/fredericksburg-tx
  16. https://migrantknowledge.org/2024/04/04/on-to-texas-an-introduction-to-the-miniseries-on-texas-germans/
  17. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/new-braunfels-tx
  18. https://www.visitfredericksburgtx.com/media/faqs/
  19. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/hill-country
  20. https://sanantoniotourist.net/germanheritage/
  21. https://www.visitsanantonio.com/san-antonio-culture/german-heritage/
  22. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/king-william-historic-district
  23. https://www.sanantonio.gov/Mission-Trails/Mission-Trails-Historic-Sites/Historic-Districts-Neighborhoods/Lavaca-Historic-District/Lavaca-Historic-District-Expanded
  24. https://www.sanantonio.gov/Mission-Trails/Mission-Trails-Historic-Sites/Historic-Districts-Neighborhoods/La-Villita-Historic-District/La-Villita-Historic-District-Expanded
  25. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/galveston-county
  26. https://texascooppower.com/the-unbroken-peace-treaty/
  27. https://mkifriends.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Hoerig-Germans-and-Natives-Texas-1994.pdf
  28. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/masters/847/
  29. https://mki.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/1100/2023/02/MKI_Summer-2021_Newsletter.pdf
  30. https://www.afrogermantexas.info/encounters
  31. https://www.ids-mannheim.de/en/zfo/pb-z1/german-across-the-world/schwarze-deutschsprecher-in-texas/
  32. https://journals.ku.edu/ygas/article/download/18201/16376/44158
  33. https://www.afrogermantexas.info/
  34. https://tgdp.org/about-texas-german/
  35. https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/germanic/texas-german-dialect-project/
  36. https://scholarworks.indianapolis.iu.edu/bitstreams/c48b2068-ce82-41e8-8b35-ac87af67e52b/download
  37. https://texashighways.com/culture/sprechen-sie-texas-deutsch-how-a-variation-of-german-once-ruled-in-fredericksburg/
  38. https://www.texasstandard.org/stories/texas-german-is-a-dwindling-relic-of-the-hill-countrys-immigrant-roots/
  39. https://texastimetravel.com/cultural-heritage/german-heritage/
  40. https://texashistory.unt.edu/explore/collections/GERLNG/
  41. https://www.tshaonline.org/texas-day-by-day/entry/1098
  42. https://texashistory.unt.edu/explore/collections/FRPRTX/
  43. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30235320.pdf
  44. https://jamesckearney.com/anthology-of-texas-german-literature/
  45. https://www.oktoberfestinfbg.com/
  46. https://wurstfest.com/
  47. https://migrantknowledge.org/2024/05/16/exploring-texas-german-foodways/
  48. https://thewespot.com/pan-haus-a-delicious-german-breakfast-legacy/
  49. https://www.co.comal.tx.us/Historical/Markers/New_Braunfels_Schuetzen_Verein.htm
  50. https://tpwmagazine.com/archive/2010/apr/legend/
  51. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/german-vernacular-architecture
  52. https://www.visitnbtx.com/news/historic-new-braunfels-architecture
  53. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/german-music
  54. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/polka-music
  55. https://texashandmadefurniture.com/
  56. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/folk-arts-and-crafts
  57. https://blogs.baylor.edu/artsandsciences/2017/05/11/hafertepe/
  58. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/german-attitude-toward-the-civil-war
  59. https://www.tshaonline.org/texas-day-by-day/entry/491
  60. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30235334
  61. https://www.statesman.com/story/news/history/2022/01/11/texas-history-when-texans-read-their-news-german/9064294002/
  62. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/douai-carl-daniel-adolph
  63. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/gillespie-county
  64. https://www.tsl.texas.gov/exhibits/civilwar/dissent.html
  65. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/nueces-battle-of-the
  66. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/buchel-augustus-carl
  67. https://repository.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2883&context=cwbr
  68. https://journals.ku.edu/ygas/article/download/19351/17330
  69. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/agriculture
  70. https://academic.oup.com/jah/article-pdf/54/1/140/2210461/54-1-140.pdf
  71. https://authentictexas.com/the-germans-journey-to-boerne/
  72. https://texascooppower.com/c-h-guenther-a-great-texas-entrepreneur/
  73. https://historyinnewbraunfels.com/history/industry/
  74. https://hillcountrycraftbeertrail.com/history/
  75. https://thc.texas.gov/historic-sites/kreische-brewery
  76. https://shiner.com/brewery/
  77. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/brewing-industry
  78. https://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entries/william-achatius-menger/
  79. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/meusebach-comanche-treaty
  80. https://migrantknowledge.org/2024/04/18/meusebachs-path-towards-a-notable-treaty/
  81. https://journals.ku.edu/ygas/article/download/20059/18021
  82. https://medium.com/save-texas-history/nine-years-a-captive-the-story-of-herman-lehmann-61396e2ff78a
  83. https://www.tsl.texas.gov/lobbyexhibits/ww1-germantexan
  84. https://twu.edu/media/documents/history-government/Discrimination-Against-North-Texas-German-CatholicsDuring-World-War-I-and-World-War-II.pdf
  85. https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2014/summer/being-german-being-american
  86. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/world-war-ii-internment-camps
  87. https://tgdp.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ANGLO-TEXAN-AND-GERMAN-TEXAN-FRICTION-DURING-WORLD-WAR-I.pdf
  88. https://tgdp.org/texas-german/the-history-of-texas-german/
  89. http://www.tsl.texas.gov/lobbyexhibits/ww1-germantexan
  90. https://www.academia.edu/110525227/Fighting_Everything_German_in_Texas_1917_1919
  91. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24449071
  92. https://www.germantexans.org/
  93. https://www.germantexans.org/festivals
  94. https://www.newbraunfelsconservation.org/
  95. https://www.wonderfulmuseums.com/museum/pioneer-museum-fredericksburg/
  96. https://blog.txfb-ins.com/texas-living/the-race-to-preserve-texas-german/
  97. https://www.traveltexas.com/articles/post/the-best-of-the-wurst/
  98. https://www.visitfredericksburgtx.com/things-to-do/museums-history/german-heritage/
  99. https://www.kxan.com/news/texas/mexican-english-german-are-largest-ethnic-groups-in-texas/
  100. https://texashighways.com/culture/preserving-texas-german-in-its-final-days/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.