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The Amazon rainforest,[a] also called the Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7 million km2 (2.7 million sq mi),[2] of which 6 million km2 (2.3 million sq mi) are covered by the rainforest.[3] This region includes territory belonging to nine nations and 3,344 indigenous territories.

The majority of the forest, 60%, is in Brazil, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and with minor amounts in Bolivia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela. Four nations have "Amazonas" as the name of one of their first-level administrative regions, and France uses the name "Guiana Amazonian Park" for French Guiana's protected rainforest area. The Amazon represents over half of the total area of remaining rainforests on Earth,[4] and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world, with an estimated 390 billion individual trees in about 16,000 species.[5]

More than 30 million people of 350 different ethnic groups live in the Amazon, which are subdivided into 9 different national political systems and 3,344 formally acknowledged indigenous territories. Indigenous peoples make up 9% of the total population, and 60 of the groups remain largely isolated.[6]

Large scale deforestation is occurring in the forest, creating different harmful effects. Economic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could be approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation. In 2023, the World Bank published a report proposing a non-deforestation based economic program in the region.[7][8] Deforestation hurts agriculture so severely that it can lead to "agro-suicide."[9]

Etymology

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The name Amazon is said to arise from a war Francisco de Orellana fought with the Tapuyas and other tribes. The women of the tribe fought alongside the men, as was their custom.[10] Orellana derived the name Amazonas from the Amazons of Greek mythology, described by Herodotus and Diodorus.[10]

History

[edit]
See also: History of South America § Amazon, and Amazon River § History
Bates's 1863 The Naturalist on the River Amazons
Manaus, with 2.2 million inhabitants, is the largest city in the Amazon basin
The Yanomami are a group of approximately 32,000 indigenous people who live in the Amazon rainforest.[11]
Members of an uncontacted tribe encountered in the Brazilian state of Acre in 2009
Ribeirinhos dwellings. Ribeirinhos are a traditional rural non-indigenous[b] population in the Amazon rainforest, who live near rivers

Based on archaeological evidence from an excavation at Caverna da Pedra Pintada, human inhabitants first settled in the Amazon region at least 11,200 years ago.[12] Subsequent development led to late-prehistoric settlements along the periphery of the forest by AD 1250, which induced alterations in the forest cover.[13]

For a long time, it was thought that the Amazon rainforest was never more than sparsely populated, as it was impossible to sustain a large population through agriculture given the poor soil. Archeologist Betty Meggers was a prominent proponent of this idea, as described in her book Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise. She claimed that a population density of 0.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (0.52/sq mi) is the maximum that can be sustained in the rainforest through hunting, with agriculture needed to host a larger population.[14] However, recent anthropological findings have suggested that the region was actually densely populated.[15] The Upano Valley sites in present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies.[16]

Some 5 million people may have lived in the Amazon region in AD 1500, divided between dense coastal settlements, such as that at Marajó, and inland dwellers.[17] Based on projections of food production, one estimate suggests over 8 million people living in the Amazon in 1492.[18] By 1900, the native indigenous population had fallen to 1 million and by the early 1980s it was less than 200,000.[17]

The first European to travel the length of the Amazon River was Francisco de Orellana in 1542.[19] The BBC's Unnatural Histories presents evidence that Orellana, rather than exaggerating his claims as previously thought, was correct in his observations that a complex civilization was flourishing along the Amazon in the 1540s. The Pre-Columbian agriculture in the Amazon Basin was sufficiently advanced to support prosperous and populous societies. It is believed that civilization was later devastated by the spread of diseases from Europe, such as smallpox.[20] This civilization was investigated by the British explorer Percy Fawcett in the early twentieth century. The results of his expeditions were inconclusive, and he disappeared mysteriously on his last trip. His name for this lost civilization was the City of Z.[citation needed]

Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land dating between AD 1–1250, furthering claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations.[21][22] Ondemar Dias is accredited with first discovering the geoglyphs in 1977, and Alceu Ranzi is credited with furthering their discovery after flying over Acre.[20][23] The BBC's Unnatural Histories presented evidence that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and terra preta.[20] Terra preta is found over large areas in the Amazon forest; and is now widely accepted as a product of indigenous soil management. The development of this fertile soil allowed agriculture and silviculture in the previously hostile environment; meaning that large portions of the Amazon rainforest are probably the result of centuries of human management, rather than naturally occurring as has previously been supposed.[24] In the region of the Xingu tribe, remains of some of these large settlements in the middle of the Amazon forest were found in 2003 by Michael Heckenberger and colleagues of the University of Florida. Among those were evidence of roads, bridges and large plazas.[25]

In the Amazonas, there has been fighting and wars between the neighboring tribes of the Jivaro. Several tribes of the Jivaroan group, including the Shuar, practised headhunting for trophies and headshrinking.[26] The accounts of missionaries to the area in the borderlands between Brazil and Venezuela have recounted constant infighting in the Yanomami tribes. More than a third of the Yanomamo males, on average, died from warfare.[27][when?]

The Munduruku were a warlike tribe that expanded along the Tapajós river and its tributaries and were feared by neighboring tribes. In the early 19th century, the Munduruku were pacified and subjugated by the Brazilians.[28] It is documented that large war parties of the Bororo, Kayapo, Munduruku, Guaraní, and Tupi people carried out long-distance raids. Most Bororo groups were continually at war with their neighbors. In contrast, the Xingu have been described by ethnographers as a "peaceful" society, resorting to violence only in defense against their warlike neighbors.[29] In the early 20th century, thirty indigenous tribes in the Amazon basin were listed as "peaceful" and eighty-three were specifically described as "warlike".[30]

During the Amazon rubber boom it is estimated that diseases brought by immigrants, such as typhus and malaria, killed 40,000 native Amazonians.[31]

In the 1950s, Brazilian explorer and defender of indigenous people, Cândido Rondon, supported the Villas-Bôas brothers' campaign, which faced strong opposition from the government and the ranchers of Mato Grosso and led to the establishment of the first Brazilian National Park for indigenous people along the Xingu River in 1961.[32]

In 1961, British explorer Richard Mason was killed by an uncontacted Amazon tribe known as the Panará.[33]

The Matsés made their first permanent contact with the outside world in 1969. Before that date, they were effectively at-war with the Peruvian government.[34]

Geography

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Location

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Nine countries share the Amazon basin—most of the rainforest, 58.4%, is contained within the borders of Brazil. The other eight countries are Peru with 12.8%, Bolivia with 7.7%, Colombia with 7.1%, Venezuela with 6.1%, Guyana with 3.1%, Suriname with 2.5%, French Guiana with 1.4% and Ecuador with 1%.[35]

Natural

[edit]
Amazon rainforest in Colombia
Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest, near Manaus

The rainforest likely formed during the Eocene era (from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago). It appeared following a global reduction of tropical temperatures when the Atlantic Ocean had widened sufficiently to provide a warm, moist climate to the Amazon basin. The rainforest has been in existence for at least 55 million years, and most of the region remained free of savanna-type biomes at least until the current ice age when the climate was drier and savanna more widespread.[36][37]

Following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, the extinction of the dinosaurs and the wetter climate may have allowed the tropical rainforest to spread out across the continent. From 66 to 34 Mya, the rainforest extended as far south as 45°. Climate fluctuations during the last 34 million years have allowed savanna regions to expand into the tropics. During the Oligocene, for example, the rainforest spanned a relatively narrow band. It expanded again during the Middle Miocene, then retracted to a mostly inland formation at the last glacial maximum.[38] However, the rainforest still managed to thrive during these glacial periods, allowing for the survival and evolution of a broad diversity of species.[39]

Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest

During the mid-Eocene, it is believed that the drainage basin of the Amazon was split along the middle of the continent by the Purus Arch. Water on the eastern side flowed toward the Atlantic, while to the west water flowed toward the Pacific across the Amazonas Basin. As the Andes Mountains rose, however, a large basin was created that enclosed a lake; now known as the Solimões Basin. Within the last 5–10 million years, this accumulating water broke through the Purus Arch, joining the easterly flow toward the Atlantic.[40][41]

Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest near Manaus

There is evidence that there have been significant changes in the Amazon rainforest vegetation over the last 21,000 years through the last glacial maximum (LGM) and subsequent deglaciation. Analyses of sediment deposits from Amazon basin paleolakes and the Amazon Fan indicate that rainfall in the basin during the LGM was lower than for the present, and this was almost certainly associated with reduced moist tropical vegetation cover in the basin.[42] In present day, the Amazon receives approximately 9 feet of rainfall annually. There is a debate, however, over how extensive this reduction was. Some scientists argue that the rainforest was reduced to small, isolated refugia separated by open forest and grassland;[43] other scientists argue that the rainforest remained largely intact but extended less far to the north, south, and east than is seen today.[44] This debate has proved difficult to resolve because the practical limitations of working in the rainforest mean that data sampling is biased away from the center of the Amazon basin, and both explanations are reasonably well supported by the available data.

Sahara Desert dust windblown to the Amazon

[edit]

More than 56% of the dust fertilizing the Amazon rainforest comes from the Bodélé depression in Northern Chad in the Sahara desert. The dust contains phosphorus, important for plant growth. The yearly Sahara dust replaces the equivalent amount of phosphorus washed away yearly in Amazon soil from rains and floods.[45]

NASA's CALIPSO satellite has measured the amount of dust transported by wind from the Sahara to the Amazon: an average of 182 million tons of dust are windblown out of the Sahara each year (some dust falls into the Atlantic), 15% of which of falls over the Amazon basin (22 million tons of it consisting of phosphorus).[46]

CALIPSO uses a laser range finder to scan the Earth's atmosphere for the vertical distribution of dust and other aerosols. and regularly tracks the Sahara-Amazon dust plume. CALIPSO has measured variations in the dust amounts transported – an 86 percent drop between the highest amount of dust transported in 2007 and the lowest in 2011. This is possibly caused by rainfall variations in the Sahel, a strip of semi-arid land on the southern border of the Sahara.[47]

Amazon phosphorus also comes as smoke due to biomass burning in Africa.[48][49]

Biodiversity, flora and fauna

[edit]
See also: List of plants of the Amazon rainforest of Brazil, Fauna of the Amazon rainforest, and Amazonian manatee
Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest threatens many species of tree frogs, which are very sensitive to environmental changes (pictured: giant leaf frog)
A giant, bundled liana in western Brazil

Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia.[50] As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. One in ten known species in the world lives in the Amazon rainforest.[51] This constitutes the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world.[52]

The region is home to about 2.5 million insect species,[53] tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals. To date, at least 40,000 plant species,[54] 2,200 fishes,[55] 1,294 birds, 427 mammals, 428 amphibians, and 378 reptiles have been scientifically classified in the region.[56] One in five of all bird species are found in the Amazon rainforest, and one in five of the fish species live in Amazonian rivers and streams. Scientists have described between 96,660 and 128,843 invertebrate species in Brazil alone.[57]

The biodiversity of plant species is the highest on Earth with one 2001 study finding a quarter square kilometer (62 acres) of Ecuadorian rainforest supports more than 1,100 tree species.[58] A study in 1999 found one square kilometer (247 acres) of Amazon rainforest can contain about 90,790 tonnes of living plants. The average plant biomass is estimated at 356 ± 47 tonnes per hectare.[59] To date, an estimated 438,000 species of plants of economic and social interest have been registered in the region with many more remaining to be discovered or catalogued.[60] The total number of tree species in the region is estimated at 16,000.[5]

The green leaf area of plants and trees in the rainforest varies by about 25% as a result of seasonal changes. Leaves expand during the dry season when sunlight is at a maximum, then undergo abscission in the cloudy wet season. These changes provide a balance of carbon between photosynthesis and respiration.[61]

Each hectare of the Amazon rainforest contains around 1 billion invertebrates. The number of species per hectare in the Amazon rainforest is presented in the following table:[62]

Number of species per hectare in the Amazon rainforest
Type of organism Number of species per hectare
Birds 160
Trees 310
Epiphytes 96
Reptile 22
Amphibians 33
Fish 44
Primates 10

The rainforest contains several species that can pose a hazard. Among the largest predatory creatures are the black caiman, jaguar, cougar, and anaconda. In the river, electric eels can produce an electric shock that can stun or kill, while piranha are known to bite and injure humans.[63] Various species of poison dart frogs secrete lipophilic alkaloid toxins through their flesh. There are also numerous parasites and disease vectors. Vampire bats dwell in the rainforest and can spread the rabies virus.[64] Malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever can also be contracted in the Amazon region.

The biodiversity in the Amazon is becoming increasingly threatened, primarily by habitat loss from deforestation as well as increased frequency of fires. Over 90% of Amazonian plant and vertebrate species (13,000–14,000 in total) may have been impacted to some degree by fires.[65]

Deforestation

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Main article: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest
See also: Trans-Amazonian Highway and Trans-Amazonian Railway
Timelapse of the deforestation 1984–2018 (bottom right)
Deforestation in the Maranhão state of Brazil, 2016
Wildfires in Brazil's indigenous territory, 2017
Home to much of the Amazon rainforest, Brazil's tropical primary (old-growth) forest loss greatly exceeds that of other countries.[66]
Overall, 20% of the Amazon rainforest has been "transformed" (deforested) and another 6% has been "highly degraded", causing Amazon Watch to warn that the Amazonia is in the midst of a tipping point crisis.[67]

Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested areas. The main sources of deforestation in the Amazon are human settlement and the development of the land.[68] In 2022, about 20% of the Amazon rainforest has already been deforested and a further 6% was "highly degraded".[69] Research suggests that upon reaching about 20–25% (hence 0–5% more), the tipping point to flip it into a non-forest ecosystem – degraded savannah – (in eastern, southern and central Amazonia) will be reached.[70][71][72] This process of savanisation would take decades to take full effect.[69]

Prior to the early 1960s, access to the forest's interior was highly restricted, and the forest remained basically intact.[73] Farms established during the 1960s were based on crop cultivation and the slash and burn method. However, the colonists were unable to manage their fields and the crops because of the loss of soil fertility and weed invasion.[74] The soils in the Amazon are productive for just a short period of time, so farmers are constantly moving to new areas and clearing more land.[74] These farming practices led to deforestation and caused extensive environmental damage.[75] Deforestation is considerable, and areas cleared of forest are visible to the naked eye from outer space.

In the 1970s, construction began on the Trans-Amazonian highway. This highway represented a major threat to the Amazon rainforest.[76] The highway still has not been completed, limiting the environmental damage.

Between 1991 and 2000, the total area of forest lost in the Amazon rose from 415,000 to 587,000 km2 (160,000 to 227,000 sq mi), with most of the lost forest becoming pasture for cattle.[77] Seventy percent of formerly forested land in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970, have been used for livestock pasture.[78][79] Currently, Brazil is the largest global producer of soybeans. New research however, conducted by Leydimere Oliveira et al., has shown that the more rainforest is logged in the Amazon, the less precipitation reaches the area and so the lower the yield per hectare becomes. So despite the popular perception, there has been no economical advantage for Brazil from logging rainforest zones and converting these to pastoral fields.[80]

Indigenous protesters from Vale do Javari

The needs of soy farmers have been used to justify many of the controversial transportation projects that are currently developing in the Amazon. The first two highways successfully opened up the rainforest and led to increased settlement and deforestation. The mean annual deforestation rate from 2000 to 2005 (22,392 km2 or 8,646 sq mi per year) was 18% higher than in the previous five years (19,018 km2 or 7,343 sq mi per year).[81] Although deforestation declined significantly in the Brazilian Amazon between 2004 and 2014, there has been an increase to the present day.[82]

Brazilian mining operation in the Amazon Rainforest.

Brazil's President, Jair Bolsonaro, has supported the relaxation of regulations placed on agricultural land. He has used his time in office to allow for more deforestation and more exploitation of the Amazon's rich natural resources. Deforestation reached a 15 year high in 2021.[83]

Since the discovery of fossil fuel reservoirs in the Amazon rainforest, oil drilling activity has steadily increased, peaking in the Western Amazon in the 1970s and ushering another drilling boom in the 2000s.[84] Oil companies have to set up their operations by opening new roads through the forests, which often contributes to deforestation in the region.[85] 9.4% of the territory of the Amazon is affected by oil fields.[86]

Mining is also a major driver of deforestation. 17% of the area of the Amazon Rainforest is affected by mining.[86]

The transition to solar and wind energy, digitalization, raised the demand for cassiterite (the main ore of tin used also for financing gold mining), manganese and copper, which attracrted many illegal miners to the Amazon. This led to deforestation, different environmental and social problems. Hydropower also creates significant problems in the Amazon. Such activities are defined by the World Rainforest Movement as "Green extractivism".[87][88]

The European Union–Mercosur free trade agreement, which would form one of the world's largest free trade areas, has been denounced by environmental activists and indigenous rights campaigners.[89] The fear is that the deal could lead to more deforestation of the Amazon rainforest as it expands market access to Brazilian beef.[90]

According to a November 2021 report by Brazil's INPE, based on satellite data, deforestation has increased by 22% over 2020 and is at its highest level since 2006.[91][92]

2019 fires

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Main article: 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires

There were 72,843 fires in Brazil in 2019, with more than half within the Amazon region.[93][94][95] In August 2019 there were a record number of fires.[96] Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon rose more than 88% in June 2019 compared with the same month in 2018.[97]

  • NASA satellite observation of deforestation in the Mato Grosso state of Brazil. The transformation from forest to farm is evident by the paler square shaped areas under development.
    NASA satellite observation of deforestation in the Mato Grosso state of Brazil. The transformation from forest to farm is evident by the paler square shaped areas under development.
  • Fires and deforestation in the state of Rondônia
    Fires and deforestation in the state of Rondônia
  • One consequence of forest clearing in the Amazon: thick smoke that hangs over the forest
    One consequence of forest clearing in the Amazon: thick smoke that hangs over the forest
  • Impact of deforestation on natural habitat of trees
    Impact of deforestation on natural habitat of trees

The increased area of fire-impacted forest coincided with a relaxation of environmental regulations from the Brazilian government. Notably, before those regulations were put in place in 2008 the fire-impacted area was also larger compared to the regulation period of 2009–2018. As these fire continue to move closer to the heart of the Amazon basin, their impact on biodiversity will only increase in scale, as the cumulative fire-impacted area is correlated with the number of species impacted.[65]

Conservation and climate change

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See also: Deforestation and climate change, Gaviotas, and Amazon Fund
Amazon rainforest

Environmentalists are concerned about loss of biodiversity that will result from destruction of the forest, and also about the release of the carbon contained within the vegetation, which could accelerate global warming. Amazonian evergreen forests account for about 10% of the world's terrestrial primary productivity and 10% of the carbon stores in ecosystems[98] – of the order of 1.1 × 1011 metric tonnes of carbon.[99] Amazonian forests are estimated to have accumulated 0.62 ± 0.37 tons of carbon per hectare per year between 1975 and 1996.[99] In 2021 it was reported that the Amazon for the first time emitted more greenhouse gases than it absorbed.[100] Though often referenced as producing more than a quarter of the Earth's oxygen, this often stated, but misused statistic actually refers to oxygen turnover. The net contribution of the ecosystem is approximately zero.[101]

Tipping cascades in the Amazon rainforest, according to the 2023 Global Tipping Points report. Potential tipping points for the Amazon include a 3–4°C rise in global temperature and deforestation levels over 40%.[102]

One computer model of future climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions shows that the Amazon rainforest could become unsustainable under conditions of severely reduced rainfall and increased temperatures, leading to an almost complete loss of rainforest cover in the basin by 2100.,[103][104] and severe economic, natural capital and ecosystem services impacts of not averting the tipping point.[105] However, simulations of Amazon basin climate change across many different models are not consistent in their estimation of any rainfall response, ranging from weak increases to strong decreases.[106] The result indicates that the rainforest could be threatened through the 21st century by climate change in addition to deforestation.

Peruvian researcher Tatiana Espinosa [es] with a Dipteryx micrantha tree in the Peruvian Amazonia

In 1989, environmentalist C.M. Peters and two colleagues stated there is economic as well as biological incentive to protecting the rainforest. One hectare in the Peruvian Amazon has been calculated to have a value of $6820 if intact forest is sustainably harvested for fruits, latex, and timber; $1000 if clear-cut for commercial timber (not sustainably harvested); or $148 if used as cattle pasture.[107]

A map of uncontacted tribes, around the start of the 21st century

As indigenous territories continue to be destroyed by deforestation and ecocide (such as in the Peruvian Amazon),[108] indigenous peoples' rainforest communities continue to disappear, while others, like the Urarina continue to struggle to fight for their cultural survival and the fate of their forested territories. Meanwhile, the relationship between non-human primates in the subsistence and symbolism of indigenous lowland South American peoples has gained increased attention, as have ethno-biology and community-based conservation efforts.

From 2002 to 2006, the conserved land in the Amazon rainforest almost tripled and deforestation rates dropped up to 60%. About 1,000,000 km2 (250,000,000 acres) have been put onto some sort of conservation, which adds up to a current amount of 1,730,000 km2 (430,000,000 acres).[109]

In April 2019, the Ecuadorian court stopped oil exploration activities in 180,000 hectares (440,000 acres) of the Amazon rainforest.[110]

In July 2019, the Ecuadorian court forbade the government to sell territory with forests to oil companies.[111]

In September 2019, the US and Brazil agreed to promote private-sector development in the Amazon. They also pledged a $100m biodiversity conservation fund for the Amazon led by the private sector. Brazil's foreign minister stated that opening the rainforest to economic development was the only way to protect it.[112]

  • Anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases broken down by sector for the year 2000.
    Anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases broken down by sector for the year 2000.
  • Aerosols over the Amazon each September for four burning seasons (2005 through 2008). The aerosol scale (yellow to dark reddish-brown) indicates the relative amount of particles that absorb sunlight.
    Aerosols over the Amazon each September for four burning seasons (2005 through 2008). The aerosol scale (yellow to dark reddish-brown) indicates the relative amount of particles that absorb sunlight.
  • Aerial roots of red mangrove on an Amazonian river.
    Aerial roots of red mangrove on an Amazonian river.
  • Climate change disturbances of rainforests.[113]
    Climate change disturbances of rainforests.[113]

A 2009 study found that a 4 °C rise (above pre-industrial levels) in global temperatures by 2100 would kill 85% of the Amazon rainforest while a temperature rise of 3 °C would kill some 75% of the Amazon.[114]

Guiana Amazonian Park in French Guiana

A new study by an international team of environmental scientists in the Brazilian Amazon shows that protection of freshwater biodiversity can be increased by up to 600% through integrated freshwater-terrestrial planning .[115]

Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest region has a negative impact on local climate.[116] It was one of the main causes of the severe drought of 2014–2015 in Brazil.[117][118] This is because the moisture from the forests is important to the rainfall in Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. Half of the rainfall in the Amazon area is produced by the forests.[119]

Results of a 2021 scientific synthesis indicate that, in terms of global warming, the Amazon basin with the Amazon rainforest is currently emitting more greenhouse gases than it absorbs overall. Climate change impacts and human activities in the area – mainly wildfires, current land-use and deforestation – are causing a release of forcing agents that likely result in a net warming effect.[120][113][121]

In 2022 the supreme court of Ecuador decided that ""under no circumstances can a project be carried out that generates excessive sacrifices to the collective rights of communities and nature." It also required the government to respect the opinion of Indigenous peoples of the Americas about different industrial projects on their land. Advocates of the decision argue that it will have consequences far beyond Ecuador. In general, ecosystems are in better shape when indigenous peoples own or manage the land.[122]

Due to the conservation policies of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in the first 10 months of 2023 deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon decreased by around 50% compared to the same period in 2022. This was despite a severe drought, one of the worst on record, that exacerbated the situation. Climate change, El Nino, deforestation increases the likelihood of drought condition in the Amazon.[123]

According to Amazon Conservation's MAAP forest monitoring program, the deforestation rate in the Amazon from the January 1 to November 8, 2023, decreased by 56% in comparison to the same period in 2022. The main cause is the decline in deforestation rate in Brazil, due to the government's policies, while Columbia, Peru and Bolivia also reduced deforestation.[124]

In January 2024 published data showed a 50% decline in deforestation rate in the Amazon rainforest and 43% rise in vegetation loss in the neighbor Cerrado during the year of 2023 in comparison to 2022. Both biomes together lose 12,980 km², 18% less than in 2022.[125]

Remote sensing

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See also: Environmental monitoring, Environmental management system, and Unmanned aerial vehicle
This image reveals how the forest and the atmosphere interact to create a uniform layer of "popcorn-shaped" cumulus clouds.

The use of remotely sensed data is dramatically improving conservationists' knowledge of the Amazon basin. Given the objectivity and lowered costs of satellite-based land cover and -change analysis, it appears likely that remote sensing technology will be an integral part of assessing the extents, locations and damage of deforestation in the basin.[126] Furthermore, remote sensing is the best and perhaps only possible way to study the Amazon on a large scale.[127]

The use of remote sensing for the conservation of the Amazon is also being used by the indigenous tribes of the basin to protect their tribal lands from commercial interests. Using handheld GPS devices and programs like Google Earth, members of the Trio Tribe, who live in the rainforests of southern Suriname, map out their ancestral lands to help strengthen their territorial claims.[128] Currently, most tribes in the Amazon do not have clearly defined boundaries, making it easier for commercial ventures to target their territories.

To accurately map the Amazon's biomass and subsequent carbon-related emissions, the classification of tree growth stages within different parts of the forest is crucial. In 2006, Tatiana Kuplich organized the trees of the Amazon into four categories: mature forest, regenerating forest [less than three years], regenerating forest [between three and five years of regrowth], and regenerating forest [eleven to eighteen years of continued development].[129] The researcher used a combination of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and Thematic Mapper (TM) to accurately place the different portions of the Amazon into one of the four classifications.

Impact of early 21st-century Amazon droughts

[edit]

In 2005, parts of the Amazon basin experienced the worst drought in one hundred years,[130] and there were indications that 2006 may have been a second successive year of drought.[131] A 2006 article in the UK newspaper The Independent reported the Woods Hole Research Center results, showing that the forest in its present form could survive only three years of drought.[132][133] Scientists at the Brazilian National Institute of Amazonian Research argued in the article that this drought response, coupled with the effects of deforestation on regional climate, are pushing the rainforest towards a "tipping point" where it would irreversibly start to die.[134] It concluded that the forest is on the brink of[vague] being turned into savanna or desert, with catastrophic consequences for the world's climate.[citation needed] A study published in Nature Communications in October 2020 found that about 40% of the Amazon rainforest is at risk of becoming a savanna-like ecosystem due to reduced rainfall.[135] A study published in Nature climate change provided direct empirical evidence that more than three-quarters of the Amazon rainforest has been losing resilience since the early 2000s, risking dieback with profound implications for biodiversity, carbon storage and climate change at a global scale.[136] Research from 2025 using hundreds of climate-model simulations says even passing 1.5C of global warming temporarily would trigger a significant risk of Amazon forest dieback.[137][138]

According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the combination of climate change and deforestation increases the drying effect of dead trees that fuels forest fires.[139]

In 2010, the Amazon rainforest experienced another severe drought, in some ways more extreme than the 2005 drought. The affected region was approximately 3,000,000 km2 (1,160,000 sq mi) of rainforest, compared with 1,900,000 km2 (734,000 sq mi) in 2005. The 2010 drought had three epicenters where vegetation died off, whereas in 2005, the drought was focused on the southwestern part. The findings were published in the journal Science. In a typical year, the Amazon absorbs 1.5 gigatons of carbon dioxide; during 2005 instead 5 gigatons were released and in 2010 8 gigatons were released.[140][141] Additional severe droughts occurred in 2010, 2015, and 2016.[142]

In 2019 Brazil's protections of the Amazon rainforest were slashed, resulting in a severe loss of trees.[143] According to Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (INPE), deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon rose more than 50% in the first three months of 2020 compared to the same three-month period in 2019.[144]

In 2020, a 17 percent rise was noted in the Amazon wildfires, marking the worst start to the fire season in a decade. The first 10 days of August 2020 witnessed 10,136 fires. An analysis of the government figures reflected 81 per cent increase in fires in federal reserves, in comparison with the same period in 2019.[145] However, President Jair Bolsonaro turned down the existence of fires, calling it a "lie", despite the data produced by his own government.[146] Satellites in September recorded 32,017 hotspots in the world's largest rainforest, a 61% rise from the same month in 2019.[147] In addition, October saw a huge surge in the number of hotspots in the forest (more than 17,000 fires are burning in the Amazon's rainforest) – with more than double the amount detected in the same month last year.[148]

Possibility of forest-friendly economy

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Experts consider a forest-friendly economy the best method to sustain the Brazilian agricultural sector, because deforestation disrupts rainfall patterns and increases temperatures, hurting agriculture. This may lead to "agro-suicide." Even irrigation can not solve the problem, because for irrigation farmers need water, which is already in short supply.[149]

In 2023 the World Bank, published a report named: "A Balancing Act for Brazil's Amazonian States: An Economic Memorandum". The report stating that economic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could reach around 317 billion dollars per year, approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation, proposed non-deforestation based economic program in the region of the Amazon rainforest.[7][8]

Silvopasture integrates livestock, forage, and trees. (Photo: USDA NAC)

Silvopasture (integrating trees, forage and grazing) can help to stop deforestation in the region.[150]

According to WWF, ecotourism could help the Amazon to reduce deforestation and climate change. Ecotourism is currently still little practiced in the Amazon, partly due to lack of information about places where implementation is possible. Ecotourism is a sector that can also be taken up by the Indigenous community in the Amazon as a source of income and revenue. An ecotourism project in the Brazilian section of the rainforest had been under consideration by Brazil's State Secretary for the Environment and Sustainable Development in 2009, along the Aripuanã River, in the Aripuanã Sustainable Development Reserve.[151] Also, some community-based ecotourism exists in the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve.[152] Ecotourism is also practiced in the Peruvian section of the rainforest. A few ecolodges are for instance present between Cusco and Madre de Dios.[153]

In May 2023 Brazil's bank federation decided to implement a new sustainability standard demanding from meatpackers to ensure their meat is not coming from illegally deforested area. Credits will not be given to those who will not meet the new standards. The decision came after the European Union decides to implement regulations to stop deforestation. Brazil beef exporters, said the standard is not just because it is not applied to land owners.[154] 21 banks representing 81% of the credit market in Brazil agree to follow those rules.[155]

According to a statement of the Colombian government deforestation rates in the Colombian Amazon fell by 70% in the first 9 months of 2023 compared to the same period in the previous year, what can be attributed to the conservation policies of the government. One of them is paying local residents for conserving the forest.[156]

See also

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Organizations
Technology

Notes

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Amazon rainforest

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The Amazon rainforest is a vast ecosystem covering approximately 6 million square kilometers in the of , spanning nine countries with the majority—nearly 60%—in , followed by portions in , , , , , , , and . It is home to more than 30 million people, including indigenous populations from over 350 ethnic groups. It hosts extraordinary , including more than 15,000 tree species across its expanse, representing a significant fraction of global terrestrial diversity concentrated in tropical forests like the Amazon. The forest functions as a major carbon reservoir, storing vast quantities of carbon in and soils, though and warming have caused portions to shift from net carbon sinks to sources in recent decades. Ecologically, it regulates regional climate through transpiration-driven rainfall cycles and supports nutrient cycling in nutrient-poor soils via microbial and faunal processes. Human activities, particularly agricultural expansion for soy and ranching, , and , have driven , with cumulative losses approaching 20% of the original forest cover, though annual rates in declined by nearly 50% in the first ten months of 2023 compared to 2022. Indigenous-managed areas within the Amazon demonstrate lower and sustained , highlighting causal links between , , and forest integrity.

Geography and Physical Characteristics

Extent and Location

The Amazon rainforest is situated in northern South America, primarily within the drainage basin of the Amazon River, which flows eastward from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. It spans portions of nine countries and territories: Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana, with Brazil containing nearly 60 percent of the total area. The rainforest's extent covers approximately 6.7 million square kilometers, encompassing about 40 percent of the South American continent and representing the largest continuous tract of on . This area is bounded to the north by the Guiana Highlands, to the west by the eastern slopes of the , to the south by the Brazilian Shield and Central Brazilian Plateau, and to the east by the Atlantic coastal lowlands. The biome straddles the , extending roughly from 5° N to 15° S and from 80° W to 45° W longitude, though dense forest cover is concentrated between 5° N and 5° S. Estimates of the precise area vary due to differences in defining the forest's boundaries, with some sources citing 5.5 million square kilometers for closed-canopy rainforest. These variations arise from interpretations and inclusions of transitional ecosystems like seasonally flooded forests (várzea) and drier woodlands at the periphery. Despite such discrepancies, the Amazon remains unmatched in scale among tropical forests, influencing regional climate through its vast evapotranspiration.

Climate and Hydrology

The Amazon rainforest experiences a characterized by consistently high temperatures and , with minimal seasonal variation in temperature but distinct wet and dry periods driven by the . Average annual temperatures range from 25°C to 28°C across the basin, with daytime highs occasionally exceeding 35°C during drier months and nighttime lows rarely dropping below 20°C. Relative averages 80-90%, fostering persistent and frequent . Precipitation totals 2,000 to 3,000 millimeters annually in most areas, though central and western portions can receive up to 4,000 millimeters, while eastern edges are slightly drier at around 1,500 millimeters due to topographic influences and distance from oceanic moisture sources. The spans November to June, accounting for 70-80% of annual rainfall, with monthly averages exceeding 200 millimeters; the from July to October sees reduced totals, with the minimum in at about 50 millimeters. This pattern results from seasonal shifts in , where southerly bring drier air during austral winter, though "dry" conditions still include convective showers. Empirical records from stations like indicate interannual variability, with extremes linked to El Niño-Southern Oscillation phases, causing droughts in 2005 and 2010 or floods in 2009 and 2012. Hydrologically, the functions as a vast, interconnected system where the rainforest's recycles 20-35% of precipitation back into the atmosphere, sustaining regional moisture convergence and downwind rainfall. The , draining 6.1 million square kilometers, discharges an average of 209,000 cubic meters per second—about one-fifth of global riverine freshwater input to oceans—with peak flows during the reaching 300,000 cubic meters per second. Seasonal flooding inundates 10-15% of the basin (), with levels rising 10-15 meters in main channels from low-water marks in to peaks in , propagating as a downstream-migrating wave due to timing differences. This dynamic exchanges vast volumes between rivers and floodplains, up to 10^5 cubic meters per second monthly in net balance, supporting nutrient cycling but also causing prolonged inundation that shapes . Observations from 1980-2015 reveal increasing flow variability, with amplified high-low differences potentially tied to climatic oscillations rather than uniform trends.
ParameterAverage ValueSeasonal RangeSource
Annual Precipitation2,000-3,000 mmWet: >200 mm/month; Dry: <100 mm/month
Temperature25-28°CDry season highs: up to 35°C; Rainy: 25-27°C
River Discharge209,000 m³/sLow: ~100,000 m³/s; High: ~300,000 m³/s
Floodplain Inundation Depth10-15 mNovember-June rise

Geology and Soils

The , encompassing the rainforest, overlies ancient cratonic shields, including the in the north and the Brazilian Shield in the south, which form stable, low-relief basement rocks dating back over 1.8 billion years. These shields experienced minimal tectonic deformation since the era, resulting in a broad that subsided gradually from the onward, with major infilling occurring during the due to . Sediments within the basin, reaching thicknesses up to 5-7 kilometers in central areas, consist primarily of unconsolidated Tertiary clays, sands, and silts eroded from the rising Andes Mountains, transported eastward by rivers like the Marañón, Ucayali, and Mamoré. This Andean-derived material dominates the basin's geology, creating low topographic gradients (less than 0.1% slope in central regions) and limited geodiversity, which contrasts with higher-relief peripheral zones influenced by shield outcrops and tectonic uplifts. Soils across the Amazon rainforest are predominantly highly weathered and nutrient-impoverished, classified mainly as and Ultisols under the USDA system, characterized by intense leaching from prolonged exposure to high rainfall (over 2,000 mm annually) and tropical temperatures averaging 25-27°C. These soils feature low , high acidity ( often below 5), and aluminum toxicity, with essential nutrients like , , calcium, and magnesium concentrated in the thin organic surface layer rather than mineral horizons due to rapid mineralization and uptake by . Particle composition includes fine sands, silts, and clays, with clay content increasing with depth, but overall fertility is low—total rarely exceeds 0.2%, and available is below 10 ppm in most profiles—rendering cleared lands unproductive for within 2-5 years without amendments. In upland terra firme areas, Spodosols predominate, being even sandier and more acidic, while soils (várzea) benefit temporarily from annual deposition, achieving higher (5.5-7) and nutrient levels before reverting to depletion. An exception occurs in anthropogenic Amazonian Dark Earths (), patches of fertile, black soils created by pre-Columbian indigenous populations through intentional addition of , , and organic waste, spanning up to 0.1-3% of the basin's area and covering thousands of square kilometers. These anthrosols exhibit elevated organic carbon (up to 50 g/kg versus 10-20 g/kg in surrounding ), stable (20-50 ppm), and microbial activity that sustains fertility for centuries, supporting denser and higher crop yields today; their persistence challenges assumptions of uniform soil infertility and highlights human modification's role in localized productivity. Geological heterogeneity, including nutrient hotspots from ancient volcanic inputs or variations, further modulates properties, influencing forest distribution—higher on less-weathered alluvial soils near rivers than on deeply leached plateaus.

History of Human Interaction

Pre-Columbian Period

inhabited the for at least 12,000 years, with evidence of human activity dating back to the end of the Pleistocene, including Clovis-like tools and hunting sites. Archaeological findings indicate early foragers adapted to diverse ecosystems, transitioning to sedentary lifestyles by around 4500 BCE through and . Pre-Columbian populations likely numbered between 8 and 10 million across the basin, challenging earlier low-density estimates derived from post-contact depopulation observations. surveys have revealed extensive networks of settlements, including platform mounds, causeways, and fortified villages in regions like the Upano Valley of (dating to 500 BCE–600 CE) and the Llanos de Mojos in (500–1400 CE), supporting low-density with populations up to 10,000 in clustered sites. These structures, often integrated with wetlands and forests, facilitated and trade without widespread , as inferred from records and earthworks. Agricultural practices transformed infertile tropical soils into productive landscapes via intentional creation of (Amazonian dark earths), nutrient-enriched anthrosols formed by incorporating , bone, and organic waste from 450 BCE to 950 CE, and possibly earlier up to 8700 years ago. These soils, covering up to 0.1–10% of the basin in patches near settlements, supported polyculture systems with manioc, , fruit trees, and managed forests, enhancing fertility and through techniques rather than exhaustive burning. Raised fields, ditches, and fish weirs in savanna-forest mosaics further indicate engineered for year-round cultivation, sustaining higher densities than nomadic alone. Diverse ethnic groups, including , Tupí, and Jê speakers, practiced that domesticated useful species and shaped forest composition, with enduring legacies in higher densities of fruit trees near ancient sites. While some areas remained lightly modified, human interventions created anthropogenic biomes, refuting notions of a wholly pristine and highlighting adaptive resilience to environmental variability. Post-1492 epidemics reduced populations by up to 95%, obscuring this engineered until modern and analyses revived recognition of pre-Columbian anthropogenic influence.

Colonial Era and Independence

European exploration of the Amazon basin began with the Spanish expedition led by in 1541–1542, during which he descended the river's full length from Andean sources to the Atlantic, originally in search of provisions and gold but yielding maps of the region's scale. This voyage, departing from under , introduced Europeans to the river's extent and indigenous societies, though Orellana's accounts of warrior women prompted the mythical naming "Rio de las Amazonas." Portuguese claims, delineated by the 1494 assigning eastern territories to , solidified through Teixeira's upstream navigation in 1637–1639, a two-year journey from do Pará that traversed over 3,000 kilometers and affirmed Lisbon's sovereignty against Spanish rivals. These expeditions relied on indigenous guides and canoes, highlighting the basin's navigational challenges and dense forests. Portuguese colonization, formalized after the 1616 founding of as a fortified outpost, emphasized extractive economies over large-scale settlement, focusing on indigenous labor for harvesting goods like spices, dyes, and timber via the drogas do system. Jesuit and Capuchin missions established aldeias to convert and concentrate native groups, but enforcement involved enslavement, forced relocations, and raids that decimated populations; European-introduced diseases such as and , combined with warfare and overwork, reduced Amazonian indigenous numbers from millions pre-contact to fractions by the , with overall South American declines estimated at 90–95%. Environmental alterations remained localized, with indigenous management practices—such as soil enrichment—persisting amid depopulation, leading to net regrowth in some areas rather than widespread clearing. Brazil's independence from on September 7, 1822, under Dom Pedro I, integrated Amazonian provinces like Grão-Pará and Amazonas into the new empire, resolving prior separatist revolts such as the 1823 but leaving borders fluid with until the 1850s. Post-independence governance shifted to imperial diretórios for indigenous affairs, nominally protecting reserves but enabling continued extraction; settlement remained sparse, with the region's under 100,000 Europeans and mixed descendants by mid-century, as emerged but true booms awaited later infrastructure. This era preserved much of the rainforest's extent, with colonial legacies of demographic collapse yielding ecological recovery, evidenced by pollen records showing increased arboreal cover post-1600.

20th-Century Development

The early in the Amazon region followed the collapse of the rubber boom around –, which had briefly stimulated extraction and settlement but left a legacy of and depopulation after Asian rubber plantations undercut prices. A period of relative calm ensued through the , with limited and forest clearance remaining minimal compared to later decades, as the region was largely isolated and economically marginal to Brazil's coastal centers. Under Brazil's military regime from to , policies shifted toward aggressive integration of the Amazon into the national economy, viewing the region as an underutilized frontier for resource extraction, agricultural expansion, and border security against perceived foreign threats. The government established the Superintendency for the Development of the Amazon (SUDAM) to coordinate investments in , , and cattle ranching, while the National Institute for and Agrarian Reform (INCRA) promoted directed settlement by relocating over 100,000 families from southern to pioneer zones between 1970 and 1980. These efforts were framed as national development imperatives, but many settlements failed due to infertile soils, inadequate support, and logistical challenges, leading to land abandonment and speculative grabbing that exacerbated rather than sustainable farming. A cornerstone was the (BR-230), announced in 1970 as part of the National Integration Program and construction of which began in 1972, spanning approximately 4,000 kilometers from Cabedelo in the northeast to the Peruvian border. Intended to facilitate settlement and commodity transport, the highway instead triggered widespread forest clearance for access roads, logging, and slash-and-burn agriculture, with rates in the Brazilian Amazon accelerating from under 0.2% annually in the 1960s to peaks of over 20,000 square kilometers per year by the late 1980s. By the century's end, cumulative 20th-century losses accounted for roughly 10–15% of the original Brazilian Amazon forest cover, driven primarily by cattle ranching (which expanded to over 50 million hectares by 2000) and soy cultivation, though government subsidies and tax incentives amplified these trends without commensurate ecological safeguards. International pressures mounted in the 1980s as satellite imagery from sources like NASA's Landsat program revealed the scale of clearing, prompting Brazil to enact initial restrictions like the 1988 Constitution's protections for indigenous lands, though enforcement remained inconsistent amid ongoing development priorities. These policies reflected a causal chain where infrastructural ambitions outpaced soil science and hydrological understanding, yielding short-term economic gains—such as a tripling of regional GDP from 1970 to 1990—but long-term degradation, including soil erosion and biodiversity loss that undermined the very productivity sought. Deforestation rates in the Brazilian Amazon, which encompasses about 60% of the rainforest, peaked at around 28,000 square kilometers annually in 2004, driven primarily by cattle ranching and . The subsequent launch of Brazil's for the Prevention and Control of in the Legal Amazon (PPCDAm) in 2004 under President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's administration integrated monitoring via the (INPE), stricter enforcement against , and limits on credit for properties with recent clearing, achieving a roughly 75% reduction in rates by 2012. Under President (2019-2022), policies shifted toward economic development, including reduced funding for environmental agencies like IBAMA, relaxed penalties for environmental crimes, and suspension of indigenous land demarcations, correlating with a surge in to 13,235 square kilometers from August 2020 to July 2021—the highest in over a . ranching accounted for 84% of clearing in the 2000s and , with soy cultivation and mining adding pressure; mining alone drove 11,670 square kilometers of loss up to 70 kilometers beyond lease boundaries by 2017. Lula's 2023 return reinstated PPCDAm elements, expanded protected areas, and boosted enforcement, yielding initial drops such as a 43% reduction in some metrics by mid-term, though rates remained above 10,000 square kilometers annually amid persistent illegal activities and lobbying. International mechanisms like REDD+ provided incentives for avoided emissions, with pilot projects in reducing deforestation by up to 50% on participating smallholder lands through payments and technical aid, but broader evaluations highlight limitations including overclaimed reductions and displacement of clearing (leakage). Trends indicate that protected areas and indigenous territories, covering about 50% of the Brazilian Amazon by 2020, consistently exhibit lower —often under 1% of national totals—due to communal governance and remoteness, underscoring the causal role of secure tenure in conservation outcomes over top-down regulations alone. reversals, such as those under Bolsonaro, demonstrate how weakened amplifies baseline pressures from land speculation and commodity exports, while sustained monitoring and local incentives have proven more effective than international pressure, which sources like mainstream outlets sometimes exaggerate for advocacy. Overall, cumulative 21st-century loss exceeds 20 million square kilometers across the biome, yet rates fluctuate with domestic politics rather than global pacts.

Biodiversity and Ecology

Flora Diversity

The harbors approximately 50,000 described , representing one of the highest concentrations of botanical diversity on . Of these, roughly half are woody plants, with s comprising about half of the woody contingent, yielding an estimated 11,000 to 16,000 depending on taxonomic revisions and sampling completeness. A taxonomically verified compiled from over 530,000 collections between 1707 and 2015 identified 11,676 across 1,225 genera and 140 families, underscoring the region's unparalleled , where individual plots can support up to 357 with an average of 121. This diversity spans a stratified forest structure dominated by emergent canopy trees exceeding 40 meters in height, such as those in the genera Ceiba and Bertholletia, alongside dense understory layers of shrubs, herbs, and ferns. Lianas (woody vines) and epiphytes—plants like orchids, bromeliads, and mosses that grow non-parasitically on hosts—further amplify richness, with epiphytes alone numbering in the thousands of species and adapted to exploit canopy microhabitats via aerial roots and nutrient-trapping mechanisms. Endemism is pronounced, particularly among herbaceous and understory taxa, driven by edaphic specialization and isolation in heterogeneous habitats like white-sand forests and tepuis, though precise figures vary due to incomplete inventories; conservative estimates suggest over 10,000 species restricted to Amazonia. Notable taxa include the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa), a canopy emergent reliant on specific orchid-mediated pollination and agouti-dispersed seeds, and the rubber tree (), historically exploited for latex but now threatened by plantations outside native ranges. Understory highlights encompass species, bird-pollinated herbs with colorful bracts, and the giant water lily (), whose buoyant leaves up to 3 meters in diameter exemplify adaptations to nutrient-poor aquatic margins. These elements collectively sustain ecological processes like nutrient cycling and habitat provision, with diversity gradients peaking in western Amazonia due to climatic stability and topographic variability.

Fauna and Endemism


The Amazon rainforest supports one of the highest concentrations of animal species on Earth, with vertebrate fauna comprising approximately 427 mammal species, 1,300 bird species, 378 reptile species, and more than 400 amphibian species. Its freshwater systems harbor around 3,000 fish species, many adapted to the nutrient-poor blackwater and whitewater rivers. Invertebrate diversity far exceeds vertebrates, with arthropods—particularly insects—estimated at up to 2.5 million species, including vast numbers of beetles, butterflies, and ants that underpin ecosystem processes like decomposition and pollination. Mammals range from large predators like the jaguar (Panthera onca), which regulates prey populations as an apex carnivore, to arboreal primates such as howler monkeys (Alouatta spp.) and tamarins (Saguinus spp.), which rely on canopy fruits and leaves. Bats constitute over half of mammal species, functioning as pollinators and insectivores, while sloths and anteaters exhibit specialized diets tied to epiphytic bromeliads and termite mounds. Endemism among mammals stands at around 350 species, including the bald uakari (Cacajao calvus) and pink river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis), both confined to Amazonian waterways and forests due to historical isolation. Bird diversity peaks with species like the (Harpia harpyja), a top raptor preying on monkeys, and the (Opisthocomus hoazin), a with unique claw-equipped chicks for climbing. Approximately 950 species are endemic, concentrated in and upland habitats that foster through riverine barriers. Reptiles include formidable species such as the (Eunectes murinus), the world's heaviest snake, and black caimans (Melanosuchus niger), which dominate aquatic predation; endemism affects roughly 550 species, driven by microhabitat specialization in flooded varzea forests. Amphibians exhibit the highest endemism rates, with 384 species unique to the region, exemplified by dart frogs (Dendrobatidae family) whose vivid aposematic coloration signals potent skin toxins derived from dietary alkaloids.
Insect assemblages reveal vertical stratification, with canopy layers hosting distinct communities of flies, wasps, and beetles that differ markedly from forms, reflecting adaptations to light, humidity, and host plants. abundance can reach 300 individuals per single in sampled plots, underscoring their numerical dominance and role in food webs. Endemism in remains poorly quantified due to taxonomic challenges, but localized —evident in rare beetles and carnivorous bees—highlights the Amazon's role as a cradle for novel lineages shaped by climatic refugia during Pleistocene cycles. Overall, the fauna's stems from the biome's vast scale, topographic heterogeneity, and historical connectivity-disconnectivity via megafloods and sea-level fluctuations, fostering allopatric divergence while maintaining in mobile taxa.

Microbial and Belowground Ecosystems

The Amazon rainforest's belowground ecosystems are characterized by highly weathered, nutrient-poor soils such as and ultisols, where microbial communities play a pivotal role in sustaining productivity through rapid nutrient cycling and with plant roots. These soils, often deeply leached of essential elements like (P) and (N), rely on dense networks of , fungi, and to facilitate , mineralization, and mobilization, compensating for low inorganic availability. Studies using culture-independent methods have revealed extraordinary microbial diversity in Amazonian soils, with early molecular analyses identifying thousands of unique operational taxonomic units, underscoring the untapped complexity beyond cultivable species. Microbial processes are central to nitrogen and phosphorus dynamics in these ecosystems. Diazotrophic bacteria, capable of biological nitrogen fixation, contribute significantly to soil N inputs, with community composition shifting toward more efficient fixers during secondary forest regrowth, enhancing closed N cycles and reducing leaching risks. For phosphorus, which is tightly bound in insoluble forms due to high iron and aluminum oxides, phosphate-solubilizing microbes such as Trichoderma species produce organic acids and enzymes to release bioavailable P, promoting plant growth in P-limited environments; isolates from Amazon soils have demonstrated solubilization halos exceeding 5 mm in vitro and improved soybean biomass by up to 30% in pot trials. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) dominate symbiotic associations, extending hyphal networks to access distant nutrients in exchange for plant carbon, with over 80% of Amazon tree species forming these partnerships that enhance P uptake efficiency and drought tolerance. Belowground invertebrate communities, including earthworms, , , and macroarthropods, further amplify microbial activity by engineering and accelerating turnover. These organisms, representing up to 25% of global described , burrow and fragment , increasing and microbial habitats; in Amazonian anthropic earths, surveys have documented over 9,000 individuals across 667 morphospecies from 24 taxa, with higher densities and functional diversity in fertile anthropogenic soils compared to surrounding infertile ones. and , in particular, dominate and drive redistribution through mound construction and foraging, with densities reaching 10^5 individuals per in undisturbed forests, fostering hotspots of that recycle 20-40% of annual inputs back to plants. Deforestation disrupts these belowground systems, leading to biotic homogenization and reduced functional redundancy in microbial assemblages, as observed in conversions to pasture where bacterial diversity drops by 20-50% and P-solubilizing groups decline, impairing long-term soil fertility. In peatland variants, unique low-oxygen-adapted microbes, including a novel family discovered in Peruvian Amazon sites in 2025, maintain anaerobic methane and carbon cycling but face vulnerability to drainage. Restoration efforts show partial recovery, with macrofauna biomass rebounding within 10-20 years of regrowth, yet full microbial resilience lags, highlighting the need for conserving intact belowground networks to sustain the forest's biogeochemical engine.

Global Environmental Role

Carbon Dynamics: Sink or Source?

The Amazon rainforest functions as a major component of the global , primarily through the uptake of atmospheric CO₂ via in its vast , estimated at approximately 56.8 billion metric tons of aboveground carbon as of 2022. Historically, intact portions have acted as net carbon sinks, with forests in Indigenous territories absorbing carbon equivalent to France's annual emissions from 2001 to 2021. However, anthropogenic disturbances and stressors have diminished this capacity, leading to debates over its overall status. Recent atmospheric CO₂ measurements, combining tower-based and aircraft data, indicate that the Amazon remains a net as of analyses through 2024, countering earlier claims of a full regional transition to a source. Bottom-up assessments partitioning aboveground carbon fluxes reveal significant losses from and natural disturbances, including a net loss attributed to tree mortality and emissions in disturbed areas, though regrowth in secondary forests partially offsets these. alone committed at least 104.9 million metric tons of carbon to release in 2022 via clearing and subsequent fires. Fires exacerbate emissions, with unprecedented wildfires in 2024 driven by , forest fragmentation, and warming releasing record CO₂ levels, though burned area in Brazil's Amazon dropped 70% in 2025 compared to 2024. , intensified by deforestation's disruption of regional moisture recycling, increase tree dieback and reduce , flipping southeastern degraded forests from sinks to sources even absent fires. Protected primary rainforests, however, continue to demonstrate long-term sequestration potential under minimal disturbance. Projections under high-emission scenarios suggest that up to 25% of degraded Amazon rainforests could become net sources by mid-century due to accelerated dieback from warming and drying, though emergent constraints from past temperature trends imply lower overall climate-induced losses than previously modeled. The interplay of these factors underscores a weakening sink function, with protected and Indigenous-managed areas preserving disproportionate sequestration amid broader degradation.

Hydrological and Regional Climate Effects

The Amazon rainforest plays a central role in the regional hydrological cycle through high rates of , which atmospheric moisture and sustains across the basin. Annual from the Amazon contributes between 15% and 35% of the basin's , with moisture undergoing — followed by local —five to six times as carry clouds westward across the forest. This process, often termed "flying rivers," involves the transport of from the Amazon's to downstream regions, where it accounts for substantial portions of rainfall, such as 18–25% over the basin and up to 70% in some South American areas during the . The forest's exceeds local needs, exporting moisture that influences the South American system and maintains wet conditions in adjacent ecosystems. Regionally, this moisture shapes climate patterns beyond the basin, supporting and water availability in southern , , and . For instance, from the Amazon sustains rainfall in the River basin, where disruptions could reduce agricultural productivity reliant on these inflows. Empirical analyses of moisture tracking indicate that Amazon-derived vapor contributes to gradients, with reductions in altering low-level jets that carry southward. Model simulations, corroborated by isotopic tracing in , show that without this , in the Amazon interior could decline significantly, exacerbating seasonal variability. Deforestation disrupts these dynamics by lowering evapotranspiration, which observational datasets link to precipitation declines of up to 20% downwind in western Amazon and subtropical South America. Studies using satellite-derived vegetation indices and rainfall records from 2001–2019 demonstrate that large-scale forest loss reverses wet-season rainfall increases seen in limited clearing (up to 55–60% local loss), leading to net dry-season reductions and heightened drought risk. While some model-based projections suggest initial local rainfall boosts from albedo changes in partial deforestation, empirical evidence from deforested arcs in the southern Amazon indicates overall regional drying, with reduced moisture convergence amplifying fire susceptibility and altering river discharge seasonality. These effects underscore the forest's causal role in stabilizing regional hydrology, where vegetation-driven vapor feedback loops dominate over oceanic advection in maintaining precipitation resilience.

Debunking Common Myths

One persistent misconception portrays the Amazon rainforest as the "lungs of the ," purportedly generating 20% of the planet's oxygen supply. This claim originates from the forest's role in roughly 20% of terrestrial , but overlooks that mature rainforests achieve a near-equilibrium in : trees release oxygen during the day, yet microbes and respiration consume nearly all of it through of fallen . Net atmospheric oxygen contribution from the Amazon is thus minimal, estimated at less than 0.5% globally, with oceanic phytoplankton producing 50-80% of oxygen via . Another myth depicts the Amazon as an untouched pristine , implying minimal pre-colonial human impact. Archaeological evidence, including anthropogenic "" soils enriched with charcoal and organic matter, indicates indigenous populations managed landscapes through , earthworks, and selective clearing for millennia, supporting populations of up to 10 million before European contact. These modifications enhanced in otherwise nutrient-poor conditions, contradicting narratives of a static, virgin . Claims that timber is the primary driver of Amazon are overstated, as it accounts for less than 10-15% of tree loss, with ranching and cultivation responsible for over 70% since the 1970s due to land conversion for . Selective often precedes but does not equate to full clearing, and sustainable practices can mitigate impacts, whereas creates persistent grasslands resistant to regrowth without intervention. The notion that Amazon soils are inherently fertile, sustaining lush vegetation independently, ignores their typical poverty in phosphorus and other nutrients, reliant instead on rapid nutrient recycling from leaf litter and mycorrhizal networks rather than deep soil reserves. This fragility explains why cleared areas degrade into low-productivity pastures, as leaching and erosion deplete what little fertility exists post-disturbance.

Economic Utilization

Agriculture and Ranching

ranching dominates agricultural land use in the Amazon, occupying approximately 76.3 million hectares of land, equivalent to 9% of the biome's total area, with 92% concentrated in . This extensive system supports 's position as the world's largest exporter by volume, with the sector projected to expand amid global demand growth of 35% over the next two decades. However, productivity remains low due to the Amazon's highly weathered, nutrient-poor soils ( and ultisols), which degrade rapidly after clearing, resulting in stocking rates often below 1-2 heads per —far lower than in more fertile regions like the Brazilian . Economic analyses indicate that ranching expansion frequently serves as a low-return land speculation strategy rather than high-yield production, with internal Amazon land prices declining as proliferates, reflecting marginal returns after initial conversion. Soybean cultivation represents a smaller but intensifying component, covering about 1.04 million hectares (16% of Brazilian Amazon cropland) as of 2025, driven by export demands that link soy supply chains to cumulative deforestation of 794,000 hectares associated with production expansion from 2020 onward. Yields average 3.1-3.5 metric tons per hectare in frontier areas like , constrained by similar soil limitations and increasing climate risks from regional , which has reduced rainfall and potentially lowered potential outputs by 6.6% for soy without such losses. Despite voluntary moratoriums since 2006, direct soy-driven added at least 42,000 hectares in the Brazilian Amazon post-2020, often through indirect displacement onto uncleared lands previously used for . Pastures and soy together comprise over 77% of Brazil's agricultural area, with Amazon pastures alone spanning 59 million hectares (36% of national pastureland), underscoring ranching's outsized role in regional economies like and , where herd sizes have surged amid infrastructure improvements. Smallholder farming persists on fragmented plots for subsistence crops like manioc, but commercial operations predominate, with ranching's low input requirements enabling rapid scaling despite environmental externalities not fully internalized in market prices. Overall, these activities generate significant GDP contributions—estimated to support billions in annual and soy exports—but hinge on continued land conversion, as intensification lags behind soil and hydrological challenges inherent to the .

Mining, Energy, and Infrastructure

Mining activities in the , particularly in and , have expanded significantly, driven by demand for , , , and other minerals. Illegal artisanal and small-scale , known as garimpo in , has deforested approximately 1.3 million hectares across the by 2023, an area comparable to , with operations often invading indigenous lands and conservation units. In , illegal cleared 140,000 hectares of rainforest as of October 2025, fueled by armed foreign groups and contributing to broader including mercury contamination of waterways. 's industrial footprint grew from 360 km² in 1985 to 1,800 km² in 2022, while garimpo sites expanded over fivefold in the same period, accounting for a substantial portion of the country's output—up to 80% from artisanal sources in earlier estimates. Mineral production, including which constitutes nearly 74% of 's exports, contributed 4% to national GDP in 2011 and generated $41 billion in value by 2020, supporting over 170,000 direct jobs, though much of this extraction occurs in the Amazon region like the Carajás mineral province. Energy development in the Amazon centers on hydroelectric dams and emerging oil and gas exploration. Brazil's Amazon hosts major projects like the , completed in 2019 with an installed capacity of 11,233 MW, and the complex, which have flooded thousands of hectares of forest, displaced indigenous and riverside communities, and reduced by altering river and sediment flow. These dams provide low-emission power—Brazil's hydropower reliance mitigates dependence—but studies indicate short-term economic booms with negligible long-term socio-economic gains, alongside accelerated near clustered small dams at rates higher per megawatt than large ones. Oil and gas activities are intensifying, with the holding 794 blocks for potential extraction as of 2025; Brazil's state firm received an exploratory drilling license off the Amazon mouth in October 2025, despite risks to coastal ecosystems, as the region accounts for nearly one-fifth of global recent reserve discoveries. International banks financed $2 billion in Amazon oil and gas projects since 2024, primarily to firms like , highlighting economic incentives amid environmental opposition from groups emphasizing and spills, as seen in Ecuador's Oriente region. Infrastructure expansion, especially roads, facilitates resource access but drives . In Brazil, 95% of Amazon clearing occurs within 5.5 km of roads, with highways like BR-319—proposed for paving through central Amazon as of 2025—projected to boost and land grabbing in sensitive areas, despite government plans for protective reserves. Cumulative road networks expanded proximity from 1990 to 2020, contributing to annual losses averaging 1.4 million hectares between 2001 and 2012, though rates halved in the Brazilian Amazon from 2022 to 2023 due to . Unpaved and contested roads in unallocated public lands, comprising 28% of recent , underscore how infrastructure enables subsequent and without proportional economic mitigation of loss.

Timber and Non-Timber Resources

The Amazon rainforest yields a variety of timber resources, dominated by hardwoods extracted through selective operations. In eastern Amazonia, loggers harvest primarily low-value , which account for approximately 90% of all timber and 67% of total volume, totaling 6,439,474 m³ across studied concessions. Common high-value include () and cedar (), though their exploitation has prompted international trade restrictions under due to population declines. Economic returns from standing timber in the lower Amazon average R$23.48 per m³ in local markets, reflecting challenges in accessing remote areas and processing costs. Reduced-impact logging (RIL) techniques, which minimize to residual , demonstrate higher profitability than conventional in the eastern Amazon, with lower operational costs and reduced waste. Despite this, widespread —driven by global demand for tropical hardwoods, inadequate enforcement, and weak governance—undermines , often serving as an initial step toward full rather than long-term . Current Brazilian guidelines permitting 20 m³/ha harvests every 15–35 years exceed natural regeneration rates for many , rendering them ecologically unviable. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs), including fruits, nuts, resins, and , provide diversified income streams for indigenous and rural communities without requiring forest clearance. Key examples encompass Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa), açaí berries (Euterpe oleracea), and (Hevea brasiliensis), with export-oriented extraction historically prominent in regions like Acre, . In Amazonian households, NTFP income averages 39% of total earnings, exerting a strong equalizing effect on across socioeconomic groups. Sustainable NTFP harvesting often proves more economically viable per than one-time timber extraction, preserving while generating recurrent through value-added and markets. Community-based initiatives, spanning over 15 years in Brazilian Amazon sites, highlight NTFPs' role in fostering local development, though barriers like and inefficiencies limit scaling. Overall, timber represents only about 10% of a rainforest's potential upon clearance, underscoring NTFPs' underutilized contribution to balanced economic utilization.

Deforestation Patterns

Primary Drivers

Cattle ranching represents the dominant driver of in the Amazon, accounting for 72% of forest loss in , which encompasses the majority of Amazonian clearing activities. This expansion is fueled by domestic and international for , with producing over 9 million tons annually as of 2023, much of it from Amazonian pastures established through clear-cutting. Pasturelands now cover approximately 85% of deforested areas in the Brazilian Amazon, reflecting a pattern where initial forest removal creates low-productivity grasslands sustained by and minimal investment. Commercial , particularly cultivation, contributes significantly, though often indirectly following cattle-related clearing; soy fields have expanded to over 40 million hectares in the region by 2022, driven by global feed and oil markets. Despite soy moratoriums since 2006 limiting direct linkages in , new plantings still encroach on frontiers, comprising up to 20% of recent alerts in some states. projects, including roads like the BR-163 highway, facilitate access and speculative land grabs, amplifying these pressures by reducing transportation costs for agricultural exports. Selective and play secondary but enabling roles; timber extraction degrades 10-20% of the canopy without full clearance, increasing susceptibility and paving the way for conversion to . Illegal has surged, clearing over 100,000 hectares in indigenous territories by 2023, often using mercury and hydraulic methods that prevent regeneration. Approximately 75% of on public lands in 2021 was illegal, tied to these activities amid weak . Empirical analyses from data, such as Brazil's PRODES system, confirm 's primacy, with sub-regional variations showing pasture dominance in arc-of-deforestation states like . Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon, encompassing over 60% of the total , remained modest prior to the 1970s, with cumulative cleared area totaling approximately 98,000 km² by 1970, primarily from sporadic settlement and extraction. The period's trends shifted markedly with the initiation of the in 1970, a spanning over 4,000 km to promote , , and resource access, which fragmented forests and enabled rapid land conversion. Annual rates during the early 1970s were low, estimated below 10,000 km², but infrastructure and fiscal incentives for ranching spurred acceleration, setting the stage for sustained expansion along southern and eastern frontiers known as the "arc of deforestation." From 1978 to 1989, annual averaged 19,840 km², fueled by subsidized pastures that dominated cleared , alongside and smallholder migration. Rates temporarily declined to an average of 13,480 km² per year between 1990 and 1994, attributable to economic recessions reducing investment and initial policy adjustments post-1988 , which recognized . However, clearing rebounded sharply, averaging 19,010 km² annually from 1995 to 2000, with a peak of around 30,000 km² in 1995 driven by soy expansion, road paving, and land speculation. These figures, derived from Brazil's (INPE) satellite data via PRODES monitoring starting in 1988, capture large-scale clear-cuts but may undercount degradation from selective or fires. By 2000, cumulative reached 458,500 km², equating to 12.8% of the original 3.6 million km² , with ranching claiming over 70% of converted areas. Trends reflected causal links between policy-driven development—highways, subsidies, and weak enforcement—and market demands for and crops, rather than isolated environmental factors. Non-Brazilian Amazon portions saw lower rates, contributing minimally to basin-wide totals during this era.

Recent Rates and Influences (2010s–2025)

Deforestation rates in the Brazilian Amazon, comprising about 60% of the total , declined in the early following sustained enforcement of the PPCDAm, reaching a low of 4,571 km² in the 2012 PRODES annual period (August 2011–July 2012). Rates then rose gradually amid fluctuating commodity prices and easing regulations under subsequent administrations, averaging 6,000–8,000 km² annually through 2018, with 7,536 km² recorded that year. During Bolsonaro's presidency (2019–2022), annual clear-cut surged to an average of approximately 11,400 km², totaling 45,586 km² over the period, driven by budget cuts to environmental agencies like IBAMA (reducing operations by over 30%), amnesty for illegal landholders, and rhetoric downplaying enforcement in favor of agricultural and mining expansion. This increase correlated with relaxed oversight rather than novel economic shocks, as soy and demands remained steady but faced fewer barriers to conversion. Upon Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's return to office in January 2023, policy reversals—including restored IBAMA funding, intensified satellite-based alerts via DETER, military deployments for enforcement, and international pledges—yielded sharp reductions: PRODES recorded a 22% drop to about 9,000 km² for the 2023 period (ending July 2023), followed by a 30.6% decline to 6,288 km² in , the lowest since 2015. Preliminary 2025 data through August, per DETER alerts, show a 24% cumulative decrease from the prior year, though isolated monthly upticks (e.g., July +33%) highlight enforcement challenges in hotspots like and . Persistent influences include land-use conversion for ranching (accounting for 70–80% of cleared area), expansion tied to global demand, and /garimpeiro activities, often enabled by road infrastructure and speculative land grabbing on public lands. While policy enforcement demonstrably modulates rates—evidenced by the inverse correlation with administrative priorities—underlying causal drivers stem from regional and the economic premium of over intact forest, with limited alternatives for smallholders despite conservation incentives. Mainstream attributions emphasizing political overlook these structural factors, as rates have not returned to pre-2000s peaks despite interventions.

Fires and Forest Degradation

Ignition Sources and Patterns

Fires in the Amazon rainforest are predominantly ignited by human activities, with natural ignitions from strikes occurring rarely due to the region's consistently high humidity and limited dry fuel conditions. According to data from Brazil's (INPE), approximately 99% of Amazon fires result from deliberate or accidental human actions, such as slash-and-burn practices for land clearing. Natural -induced fires constitute a negligible fraction, as evidenced by analyses showing no significant between lightning flash counts and fire occurrences in key states like , where millions of flashes annually precede few ignitions. Human ignitions primarily stem from , , and informal , where fires are set to clear for pastures or crops, often escaping into adjacent forests during dry periods. In southern Amazonia, for instance, and operations—both legal and illegal—account for the majority of initial burns, with escaped fires degrading standing forests. These practices are concentrated in frontier areas, where fragmented landscapes increase flammability, as small forest patches (≤100 ha) exhibit the highest fire densities due to and accumulated dry fuels. Fire patterns exhibit strong seasonality, peaking during the dry season from July to September, when reduced rainfall and lower fuel moisture (below 12-15%) enable ignition and spread. Regionally, hotspots cluster in Brazil's states of Mato Grosso, Pará, and Amazonas, as well as Bolivia's Santa Cruz department, correlating with deforestation fronts rather than uniform distribution across the biome. Extreme droughts, amplified by climate variability, further intensify patterns by extending dry conditions and doubling projected burned areas in vulnerable southern zones by 2050, though baseline ignitions remain anthropogenic. In 2024, for example, fires surged 152% in Brazilian old-growth forests compared to 2022, driven by prolonged dry spells despite policy efforts to curb deforestation.

Key Events (e.g., 2019 and 2024)

In 2019, the Brazilian Amazon saw a surge in fire activity, with satellites detecting over 80,000 fires across by , marking a 77% increase from the prior year for the same period. These fires primarily affected recently deforested areas, with at least 125,000 hectares (310,000 acres) of such land burned following clearing activities for and ranching, accounting for roughly 80% of major fire occurrences. The events drew international criticism amid reports of weakened environmental enforcement under President , prompting him to issue a on banning non-official fire-setting in the Amazon; fire counts subsequently dropped by about 33% from August to September. The 2024 fire season marked the most severe on record for the Amazon, with over 44.2 million acres (about 17.9 million hectares) burned in alone—a 66% increase from 2023 and an area exceeding the size of . Fire alerts exceeded 29,000 in through mid-September, concentrated heavily from onward, including 11,500 in and 38,000 in —the highest monthly figure in two decades—driven by extreme exacerbated by El Niño conditions rather than a rise in rates, which had declined under President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. These fires released an estimated 791 million metric tons of CO₂ equivalent, comparable to Germany's annual emissions, and affected primary forests five times more than in 2023, with 24% occurring on Indigenous lands (a 39% year-over-year spike). declared a in response, though critics noted persistent challenges in fire management amid variability.

Short- and Long-Term Consequences

Fires in the Amazon rainforest cause immediate destruction of vegetation and layers, killing most seedlings and small trees while felling up to 50% of large trees in first-time burns, thereby disrupting local nutrient cycling and exposing to . from these fires elevates regional PM2.5 levels by 80%, impacting air quality for approximately 24 million residents and exacerbating respiratory and cardiovascular conditions, particularly among vulnerable groups like children and the elderly. In the 2019 fire season, deforestation-driven ignitions increased fire counts by 39%, leading to acute crises with thousands seeking care for smoke-related illnesses. Secondary ultrafine particles from biomass burning further degrade short-term visibility and may alter local formation, though their precise meteorological effects remain under study. Over the longer term, repeated fires have degraded more than 10.3 million hectares of Amazon forest since 2001, converting intact ecosystems into fragmented, low-biomass states that support reduced equivalent to outright losses. This degradation diminishes carbon storage capacity, with burned forests exhibiting ongoing tree mortality that offsets regrowth, shifting portions of the from net carbon sinks to sources amid combined warming and moisture deficits. declines by up to 15% in carbon and post-fire, hindering and forest recovery, especially in the Arc of where compounds damage. Feedback mechanisms emerge as drier and reduced promote savanna-like transitions in bi-stable zones, elevating future fire susceptibility and potentially locking degraded areas out of regeneration pathways.

Conservation Approaches

Protected Areas and Reserves

Protected areas and reserves in the , designated primarily by national governments across nine countries, aim to preserve hotspots and curb habitat loss. These include national parks, biological reserves, and indigenous territories, with the latter often functioning as protected zones due to traditional land-use practices limiting large-scale clearing. Collectively, protected areas and indigenous territories encompass nearly 49.5% of the as of 2025 assessments. Strictly federal or state-managed protected areas cover about 26.6% of the , concentrated in , which hosts the largest share. The Central Amazon Conservation Complex in , established between 1974 and 2002 and designated a in 2000, represents the largest contiguous in the basin at over 6 million hectares, safeguarding exceptional including rare primate species and intact forest ecosystems. Other prominent reserves include Jaú National Park (, 2.27 million hectares, created 1981), Tumucumaque National Park (, 3.85 million hectares, established 2002), Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (, 1.1 million hectares, founded 1990 for sustainable use), and (, 9,820 km², designated 1979, encompassing oil-rich zones with high ). Empirical studies demonstrate these designations' role in : in Legal Amazon, protected areas accounted for 37% of the total decline from 2004 to 2006 through avoided clearing. Broader analyses indicate land protection initiatives reduced by up to 83% in targeted zones between 2000 and 2010, with protected areas and indigenous territories curbing primary loss rates threefold relative to unprotected lands. Brazil's Amazon Region Protected Areas () program, launched in 2002, has averted approximately 650,000 acres of from 2008 to 2020 via expanded coverage and enforcement. Despite these gains, effectiveness varies by enforcement rigor and external pressures; under-resourced reserves in and show moderate success in halting , while indigenous-managed territories exhibit low due to communal rather than solely statutory bans. Encroachment from , , and persists, underscoring the need for sustained monitoring and measures to maintain ecological integrity.

National Policies and Enforcement

Brazil's primary national policy framework for Amazon conservation is the Forest Code, originally enacted in 1965 and substantially revised in , which mandates that rural properties in the maintain at least 80% of their area as legal forest reserves, with provisions for restoration of deforested areas exceeding these limits. The 2012 revision introduced the Rural Environmental Registry (), a nationwide database for property registration aimed at enabling monitoring and compliance verification, though implementation varies by state, with bottlenecks in persisting as of 2024. Complementing this, the Action Plan for Prevention and Control of in the Amazon (PPCDAm), launched in 2004, integrates satellite monitoring, , and enforcement to curb illegal clearing, contributing to an 80% reduction in deforestation rates from 2004 peaks to 2012 lows through coordinated federal actions. Enforcement is primarily handled by the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA), which issues fines, embargoes, and seizures based on real-time satellite alerts from the DETER system and annual PRODES assessments by the (INPE). Targeted IBAMA operations have proven effective in halting illegal conversion of standing forest to farmland, with studies showing reduced in municipalities under stricter monitoring, though overall efficacy depends on sustained funding and personnel, which dropped over 65% from pre-2019 levels to 630 inspectors by 2021 amid budget cuts. During the 2019–2022 administration, enforcement scaled back, correlating with a 9.5% rise in Amazon in 2020 and fewer fines issued (20% drop from prior years), while post-2023 efforts under President Lula da Silva intensified operations, identifying 1,262 illegal patches and leveraging cross-agency data for prosecutions. In and , which together hold about 15% of the Amazon, national policies emphasize protected areas and anti-logging decrees, but remains inconsistent due to limited resources and cross-border illegal activities. 's 2011 Forestry Law requires plans, yet illegal persists in hotspots, with joint tri-border initiatives in 2025 aiming to bolster cooperation against forest crimes. 's 2023–2026 National Development Plan prioritizes indigenous and zero- goals, supporting 10 territories for , though dry-season peaks and expanding hotspots indicate gaps. Political commitment across these nations influences outcomes, with reversals historically linked to higher clearing rates, underscoring the need for continuous, data-driven application over ideological shifts.

International Involvement and Critiques

The Amazon Fund, established by in 2008 as a results-based mechanism under the UN REDD+ framework, receives international donations to finance projects preventing and monitoring in the Brazilian Amazon. has been the largest donor, contributing approximately R$3.47 billion (about $700 million USD as of exchange rates in 2024), while has donated over R$200 million; these funds supported 93 projects totaling R$1.5 billion by 2019 before temporary suspension amid rising rates under former President . Donations resumed in 2023 under President , with providing $50 million in December 2023 and an additional $60 million (NOK 670 million) in November 2024 tied to verified reductions in emissions. International non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), , and have partnered with Amazonian governments on initiatives like Brazil's Amazon Region Protected Areas (ARPA) program, launched in 2002 to safeguard 150 million acres through monitoring, sustainable use promotion, and capacity-building for local enforcement. The UN-REDD Programme supports these efforts by providing technical assistance for carbon stock enhancement and emission reductions, with Brazil pioneering jurisdictional REDD+ implementation via the Amazon Fund to align national policies with global climate goals. Regional bodies like the (ACTO), comprising eight nations sharing the basin, facilitate cross-border coordination, though the 2023 summit failed to establish a unified target despite pledges for enhanced monitoring. Critiques of international involvement often center on sovereignty erosion, with Brazilian officials and analysts arguing that conditional funding and donor oversight—such as and the warning against using Amazon Fund resources for paving the BR-319 highway in January 2024—impose external priorities on domestic , potentially prioritizing global environmental agendas over national development needs. Effectiveness has been questioned, as policy reversals under varying administrations demonstrate that international aid correlates with short-term dips but falters without sustained local ; for instance, Norway's payments hinge on verified emission reductions, yet critics note persistent and fires undermine long-term impacts. Geopolitical tensions arise from measures like the European Union's 2023 regulation, which Amazonian countries jointly condemned for extraterritorial burdens on exports such as soy and , potentially discriminating against regional producers without addressing consumption drivers in donor nations. reports on these dynamics, often from outlets with environmental advocacy leanings, may amplify calls for intervention while downplaying challenges in remote areas, where and weak dilute fund efficacy.

Controversies and Policy Debates

Development vs. Preservation Trade-Offs

Cattle ranching drives the majority of in the Brazilian Amazon, accounting for roughly 80% of cleared land, while enabling to become the world's largest exporter with annual revenues exceeding $10 billion as of 2023. cultivation, often following establishment, contributes to agricultural GDP through exports valued at over $50 billion yearly for overall, though much expansion occurs in the . activities, including illegal , provide employment for hundreds of thousands but accelerate forest loss and mercury pollution, with gold production from the Amazon reaching 100 tons annually in recent years. The Legal Amazon region, encompassing nine Brazilian states, contributed approximately 8.6% to national GDP in 2016, primarily through and extractive industries, supporting millions of jobs amid high rates in rural areas. Infrastructure projects like highways and dams, such as the Belo Monte hydroelectric facility completed in 2019, facilitate resource access and energy production—generating 11,000 MW—but fragment habitats and displace communities, raising opportunity costs for preservation. Preservation yields services valued at about $40,000 per square kilometer annually, including carbon storage of 650 billion tons of CO2 equivalent and of regional rainfall essential for agriculture beyond the forest. The of conserving one of forest averages $797 in forgone annual agricultural GDP, yet beyond 55-60% in local grids reduces rainfall, potentially cutting crop revenues by up to 20% in surrounding areas. Empirical analyses reveal limited inherent trade-offs, as intensifying production on underutilized pastures—where stocking rates remain low at 1-2 animals per —could boost Brazil's Amazon GDP by BRL 40 billion ($8.2 billion) yearly by 2050 without additional clearing, while maintaining forest as a absorbing 340 million tons of CO2 annually in indigenous territories alone. Anti-deforestation policies since 2004 have demonstrated that raising clearing costs promotes land intensification over expansion, decoupling from forest loss, though enforcement lapses under varying administrations have reignited debates over versus international pressure. Pro-development advocates emphasize alleviation for local populations, where offers tangible livelihoods, while preservation proponents highlight global benefits like hosting 10% of terrestrial species, often undervalued in due to externalities.

Sovereignty and Foreign Influence

Brazil holds sovereignty over approximately 60% of the Amazon rainforest, with the remainder distributed among (13%), (10%), (6%), and smaller portions in , , , , and . This territorial division underscores that conservation efforts must respect national jurisdictions, as the region is not an international commons but subject to state control under . Brazil has historically prioritized in policy responses to , viewing external critiques as potential encroachments on its right to develop resources like minerals, , and within its borders. During the 2019 Amazon fires, Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro asserted that "the Amazon is ours, not yours," rejecting accusations of inadequate management and framing international condemnation as an infringement on national autonomy. He initially declined $20 million in G7 aid pledged for firefighting, citing concerns over conditional strings that could imply loss of control, though Brazil later accepted $12 million from Britain for equipment. Such episodes highlight tensions where global leaders, including French President Emmanuel Macron, proposed discussing Amazon governance at the G7 summit without Brazil's direct input, prompting Bolsonaro to warn against "tutelary" oversight reminiscent of colonial attitudes. These interactions reflect a broader pattern: while foreign entities cite planetary ecological risks—such as carbon emissions from deforestation contributing to global warming—Brazilian officials argue that sovereignty precludes unilateral external dictates, emphasizing domestic enforcement over imposed international regimes. International non-governmental organizations (NGOs) exert influence through , , and legal actions, often partnering with local actors to shape policy but facing accusations of overreach. The Amazon Fund, launched in 2008 and primarily financed by ($1.2 billion) and ($800 million as of 2023), conditions disbursements on reduced rates, which Brazilian critics contend undermines sovereignty by tying national resource decisions to foreign approval. NGOs like WWF and have lobbied for moratoriums on soy and expansion, influencing corporate supply chains and occasionally suing governments or firms for environmental violations in and . In 2025, Brazilian NGOs challenged an oil drilling license at the Amazon River's mouth, illustrating how transnational networks amplify domestic pressures, though 's government has periodically restricted foreign NGO operations to safeguard policy independence. Among Amazon nations, sovereignty disputes are rare but include border frictions, such as the 2025 reactivation of claims over Isla Santa Rosa (also called Isla Chinería) between and , where shifting river sediments altered the island's position, leading Colombian President to accuse Peru of annexation. The (ACTO), formed in 1978 by eight nations, serves as a multilateral framework to coordinate development and environmental management while explicitly affirming member against external interventions. This body has enabled joint initiatives like shared monitoring data but prioritizes regional autonomy over supranational authority, countering narratives that portray the Amazon as a global heritage site superseding state rights.

Indigenous Involvement and Rights Claims

Indigenous peoples have inhabited the for millennia, with estimates suggesting over 400 distinct ethnic groups across nine countries, totaling around 3 million individuals as of recent censuses. In alone, which encompasses about 60% of the rainforest, indigenous populations number approximately 900,000, occupying territories that cover roughly 13% of the national land area, predominantly in the Amazon region. These groups, including the , , and Kayapó, maintain traditional livelihoods centered on sustainable forest use, such as , , and swidden , which empirical studies link to deforestation rates 2-3 times lower than in adjacent non-indigenous areas. Securing land rights through demarcation has been central to indigenous claims, with 's 1988 Constitution recognizing ancestral territories for exclusive use and prohibiting commercial exploitation without consent. As of 2023, identifies 733 indigenous territories, of which 496 are fully recognized, while 237 remain in various stages of the bureaucratic demarcation process, often delayed by legal challenges from and interests. Demarcated lands demonstrate measurable conservation benefits: between 1990 and 2020, they experienced only 1% native vegetation loss, compared to rates up to 20 times higher in untitled or contested areas, attributing this to indigenous stewardship practices rather than mere remoteness. Recent advancements include President Lula da Silva's 2023 approval of six new territories, including two large Amazonian ones, resuming processes halted under prior administrations. Persistent invasions undermine these , particularly illegal , which surged in territories like the Yanomami's 9.6 million-hectare reserve during 2019-2022, introducing mercury , , and that killed over 500 people, including 300 children, by 2023. Coordinated federal evictions since 2023 have reduced mining activity by 94%, removing over 4,000 operations, though an estimated 20,000 miners previously occupied the land, highlighting enforcement gaps tied to weak territorial sovereignty. Indigenous advocacy groups, such as the Coordination of Indigenous Organizations of the ian Amazon (COIAB), press for full titling to counter "marco temporal" proposals—rejected by 's in 2023 but revived in legislative pushes—which would limit claims to lands occupied on October 5, 1988, ignoring historical displacements. Studies indicate that formal recognition could avert up to 66% of potential in these territories by deterring external pressures like and agriculture expansion. For isolated or uncontacted groups, estimated at over 100 in the Amazon, rights claims emphasize no-contact policies to prevent disease transmission and cultural erasure, yet mining requests often target their vicinities, exacerbating vulnerability without legal protections. While indigenous involvement bolsters forest integrity—protected areas including these territories accounting for just 5% of net Brazilian Amazon loss despite holding over half the standing forest—critics note that not all groups uniformly resist development, with some engaging in selective resource extraction, underscoring the need for case-specific policies over blanket assumptions of ecological harmony.

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