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Music of Canada
Genres
Specific forms
Ethnic music
  • Caribbean
  • Celtic
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    		•
    Instrumental repertoires
    Canadian fiddle
    Media and performance
    Music awards
    Music charts
    Music festivals
    Music media

    Music television

    Nationalistic and patriotic songs
    National anthem
    "O Canada"
    Other
    Canadian patriotic music
    Regional music

    The music of Canada reflects the diverse influences that have shaped the country.[1] Indigenous Peoples, the Irish, British, and the French have all made unique contributions to the musical heritage of Canada.[2] The music has also subsequently been influenced by American culture because of the proximity between the two countries.[3] Since French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1605 and established the first permanent French settlements at Port Royal and Québec in 1608, the country has produced its own composers, musicians and ensembles.[4][5]

    Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes.[6] Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.[7] The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.[8] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.[9] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970.[10] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame, established in 1976, honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.[11]

    Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812.[12] The national anthem, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Quebec, Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony and was officially adopted in 1980.[13] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.[14]

    History

    [edit]

    Indigenous music

    [edit]
    Further information: Aboriginal music of Canada

    For thousands of years, Canada has been inhabited by indigenous peoples from a variety of different cultures and of several major linguistic groupings. Each of the Indigenous communities had (and have) their own unique musical traditions. Chanting is widely popular, with many of its performers also using a variety of musical instruments.[15] They used the materials at hand to make their instruments for thousands of years before Europeans immigrated to the new world.[16] They made gourds and animal horns into rattles which were elaborately carved and painted.[17] In woodland areas, they made horns of birchbark along with drumsticks of carved antlers and wood.[16] Drums were generally made of carved wood and animal hides.[18] These musical instruments provide the background for songs and dances.[18]

    For many years after European settlement, First Nations and Inuit peoples were discouraged from practicing their traditional ceremonies.[19] However, impacts varied significantly depending on such aspects as the time period, relative population size, relation quality, resistance, etc. In 1606–1607 Marc Lescarbot collected the earliest extant transcriptions of songs from the Americas: three songs of Henri Membertou, the sakmow (Grand Chief) of the Mi'kmaq First Nations tribe situated near Port Royal, present-day Nova Scotia.[20]

    17th century

    [edit]
    See also: Canadian classical music
    Louis Jolliet – sculpture at the Quebec Parliament

    French settlers and explorers to New France brought with them a great love of song, dance and fiddle playing. Beginning in the 1630s French and Indigenous children at Québec were taught to sing and play European instruments, like viols, violins, guitars, transverse flutes, drums, fifes and trumpets.[4] Ecole des Ursulines and The Ursuline Convent are among North America's oldest schools and the first institutions of learning for women in North America.[21] Both were founded in 1639 by French nun Marie of the Incarnation (1599–1672) alongside the laywoman Marie-Madeline de Chauvigny de la Peltrie (1603–1671) and are the first Canadian institutions to have music as part of the curriculum.[22]

    The earliest written record of violins in Canada comes from the Jesuit Relation of 1645.[23] The Jesuits additionally have the first documented organ sale, imported for their Québec chapel in 1657.[1][23] Notre-Dame de Québec Cathedral, built in 1647, is the primatial church of Canada and seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec. It is the oldest Catholic "Episcopal see" in the New World north of Mexico and site of the first documented choir in Canada.[24]

    In what was then known as New France, the first formal ball was given by Louis-Théandre Chartier de Lotbinière (1612–1688) on 4 February 1667.[25] Louis Jolliet (1645–1700) is on record as one of the first classically trained practicing musicians in New France, although history has recognized him more as an explorer, hydrographer and voyageur.[26] Jolliet is said to have played the organ, harpsichord, flute, and trumpet.[26] In 1700, under British rule at this time, an organ was installed in Notre-Dame Basilica in Montreal and military bands gave concerts on the Champ de Mars.[22] A French-born priest, René Ménard, composed motets around 1640, and a second Canadian-born priest, Charles-Amador Martin, is credited with the plainchant music for the Sacrae familiae felix spectaculum, in celebration of the Holy Family feast day in 1700.[27]

    18th century

    [edit]
    Joseph Quesnel (1746–1809)

    Historically, music was composed in Canada's colonies and settlements during the 18th century, although very few popular named works have survived or were even published.[5] The French and Indian Wars began and left the population economically drained and ill-equipped to develop cultural pursuits properly.[27] The part-time composers of this period were nonetheless often quite skilled.[4] Traditional songs and dances, such as those of the Habitants and Métis, were transmitted orally, from generation to generation and from village to village, thus people felt no need to transcribe or publish them.[28] Printed music was required, for music teachers and their pupils, who were from the privileged minority where domestic music making was considered a proof of gentility.[29] Music publishing and printing in Europe by this time was a thriving industry, but it did not begin in Canada until the 19th century.[30] Canadian composers were not able to focus entirely on creating new music in these years, as most made their living in other musical activities such as leading choirs, church organists and teaching.[31] Regimental bands were musically a part of civil life and typically featured a dozen woodwind and brass instruments, performing at parades, festive ceremonies, minuets, country dances and balls.[32]

    After the 1760s, regular concerts became a part of the cultural landscape, as well as a wide variety of dancing. Operatic excerpts began to appear, and before the end of the century Canada had its first home-grown opera.[4] A "Concert Hall" existed in Québec by 1764 and subscription concerts by 1770, given, one may presume, by band players and skilled amateurs.[33] Programs for the Québec and Halifax concerts of the 1790s reveal orchestral and chamber music by Handel, J.C. Bach, Haydn, Mozart and Pleyel.[5] Canada's first two operas were written, ca. 1790 and ca. 1808 by composer, poet, and playwright Joseph Quesnel (1746–1809).[34] The instrument of favour for the lower class was the fiddle. Fiddlers were a fixture in most public drinking establishments.[35] God Save the King/Queen has been sung in Canada since British rule and by the mid-20th century was, along with "O Canada", one of the country's two de facto national anthems.[36][37][38][39]

    19th century

    [edit]
    See also: Celtic music in Canada

    The beginning of the 19th century Canadian musical ensembles had started forming in great numbers, writing waltzes, quadrilles, polkas and galops.[27][40] The first volumes of music printed in Canada was the "Graduel romain" in 1800 followed by the "Union Harmony" in 1801.[27] Folk music was still thriving, as recounted in the poem titled "A Canadian Boat Song". The poem was composed by the Irish poet Thomas Moore (1779–1852) during a visit to Canada in 1804.[41] "The Canadian Boat Song" was so popular that it was published several times over the next forty years in Boston, New York City and Philadelphia.[4] Dancing likewise was an extremely popular form of entertainment as noted In 1807 by the Scottish traveler and artist George Heriot (1759–1839), who wrote:

    The whole of the Canadian inhabitants are remarkably fond of dancing, and frequently amuse themselves at all seasons with that agreeable exercise.

    — George Heriot, Travels Through the Canadas (1807)

    The Temple of the Children of Peace, where the band played from the second floor

    Among the earliest musical societies were Halifax's "New Union Singing Society" of 1809 and Québec's "Harmonic Society" of 1820.[4] One of the first registered all-civilian musical ensembles was a religious sect organized from Upper Canada called the Children of Peace in 1820.[42] In 1833, a student orchestra was organized at the Séminaire de Québec the Société Ste-Cécile, as it was known, and was one of the earliest ensembles of its kind in Lower Canada.[42] The first appearance of a piece of music in a newspaper or magazine was in the pages of the Montreal twice-weekly newspaper, La Minerve, on September 19, 1831.[43] Many immigrants during this time lived in relative isolation and music sometimes obtained through subscriptions to newspapers and magazines, provided entertainment and a life line to civilization.[1] One of the earliest surviving publications in Canada of a song on the piano in sheet music format is "The Merry Bells of England" by J. F. Lehmann, of Bytown (later Ottawa) in 1840.[44] It was published by John Lovell in the literary magazine Literary Garland.[45]

    Alexander Muir (1830–1906)

    The Great Migration of Canada from 1815 to 1850, consisting largely of Irish, and British immigrants, broadened considerably the Canadian musical culture.[46] 1844, Samuel Nordheimer (1824–1912) opened a music store in Toronto selling pianos and soon thereafter began to publish engraved sheet music.[1] Samuel Nordheimers store was among the first and the largest specialized music publisher in the Province of Canada.[47] They initially had the sole right to publish copies of Alexander Muir's "The Maple Leaf Forever" that for many years served as an unofficial Canadian national anthem.[48]

    By the time of Canadian Confederation (1867), songwriting had become a favored means of personal expression across the land. In a society in which most middle-class families now owned a harmonium or piano, and standard education included at least the rudiments of music, the result was often an original song.[49] Such stirrings frequently occurred in response to noteworthy events, and few local or national excitements were allowed to pass without some musical comment.[50][51]

    The 1870s saw several conservatories open their doors, providing their string, woodwind and brass faculty, leading to the opportunity for any class level of society to learn music.[52] One Sweetly Solemn Thought in 1876 by Hamilton-based Robert S. Ambrose, became one of the most popular songs to ever be published in the 19th century.[40] It fulfilled the purpose of being an appropriate song to sing in the parlors of homes that would not permit any non-sacred music to be performed on Sundays. At the same time it could be sung in dance halls or on the stage along with selections from operas and operettas.[53]

    Calixa Lavallée (1842–1891)

    "O Canada" was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille (1834–1897), for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony.[54] Calixa Lavallée (1842–1891) wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier (1839–1920). The text was originally only in French, before it was translated into English from 1906 on.[55]

    Leo, the Royal Cadet a light opera with music by Oscar Ferdinand Telgmann and a libretto by George Frederick Cameron was composed in Kingston, Ontario, in 1889. The work centres on Nellie's love for Leo, a cadet at the Royal Military College of Canada who becomes a hero serving during the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879. The operetta focussed on typical character types, events and concerns of Telgmann and Cameron's time and place.[56]

    20th century

    [edit]

    1900–1929

    [edit]
    R. Nathaniel Dett (1882–1943)

    Prior to the development of the gramophone, Canadian songwriters' works were published as sheet music, or in periodicals in local newspapers such as The Montreal Gazette and Toronto Empire. Most recordings purchased by Canadians in the early days of the gramophone were made by American and British performers, behind some of these international hits were Canadian songwriters.[57][58] Robert Nathaniel Dett (1882–1943) was among the first Black Canadian composers during the early years of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. His works often appeared among the programs of William Marion Cook's New York syncopated Orchestra.[59] Dett himself performed at Carnegie Hall and at the Boston Symphony Hall as a pianist and choir director.[60] Following quickly on the gramophone's spread came Canada's involvement in the First World War.[61] The war was the catalyst for the writing and recording of large numbers of Canadian-written popular songs, some of which achieved lasting international commercial success.[62] The military during World War I produced official music such as regimental marches and songs as well as utilitarian bugle calls. The soldiers had a repertoire of their own, largely consisting of new, often ribald, lyrics to older tunes.[63]

    Murray Adaskin (1906–2002)

    Canada's first independent record label Compo Company built a pressing plant (the largest of its day) in 1918 at Lachine, Quebec.[64] Compo was originally created to serve the several American independent record companies such as Okeh Records which wanted to distribute records in Canada.[65] The 1920s saw Canada's first radio stations, this allowed Canadian songwriters to contribute some of the most famous popular music of the early 20th century.[66] Canada's first commercial radio station CFCF (formerly XWA) begins broadcasting regularly scheduled programming in Montreal in 1920, followed by CKAC, Canada's first French language radio station, in 1922.[67] By 1923, there were 34 radio stations in Canada[68] and subsequently proliferated at a remarkable rate, and with them spread the popularity of jazz. Jazz became associated with all things modern, sophisticated, and also decadent.[69]

    In 1925, the Canadian Performing Rights Society was formed to administer public performance and royalties for composers and lyricists. It became known as the Composers, Authors and Publishers Association of Canada (CAPAC).[70] Toronto-born Murray Adaskin (1906–2002) was a violinist, composer, conductor and teacher at the University of Saskatchewan. From 1923 to 1936 he was an orchestral and chamber musician with the Toronto Symphony Orchestra, he was later named head of music at the University of Saskatchewan.[71] He was a composer-in-residence at the University of Saskatchewan, the first appointment of this type in Canada.[72]

    The RCA Victor factory located in Montreal, Quebec housed Canada's first recording studio featuring polycylindrical walls which allowed the sounds to reflect in all directions.[73] Studio Victor had artists from across Canada come in and record in both English and French, as well as had many different genres be recorded within their walls such as jazz, chamber music, choirs, classical music, folk and country.[74] The factory is now home to many businesses one being the Musée des ondes Emile Berliner, a museum focused on the work of Berliner, mostly gramophones, flat disks, and later radios when his company merged with RCA, as well as the nature and science of sound waves.[75]

    1930–1959

    [edit]
    See also: Rock music of Canada, Canadian blues, and Canadian country music
    Guy Lombardo (1902–1977)

    During the Great Depression in Canada, the majority of people listened to what today would be called swing (Jazz)[76] just as country was starting its roots.[77] The diversity in the evolution of swing dancing in Canada is reflected in its many American names, Jive, Jitterbug and Lindy. Canada's first big band star was Guy Lombardo (1902–1977), who formed his easy listening band, The Royal Canadians, with his brothers and friends. They achieved international success starting in the mid-1920s selling an estimated 250 million phonograph records, and were the first Canadians to have a #1 single on Billboard's top 100.[78] In 1932, the first Broadcasting Act was passed by Parliament creating the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission. It was to both regulate all broadcasting and create a new national public radio network.[68] 1936, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation came into existence, at the time, a million Canadian households had a radio.[68]

    Emerging from the Great Depression on near equal-footing to American popular music, Canadian popular music continued to enjoy considerable success at home and abroad in the following years.[70][79] Among them Montreal's jazz virtuoso Oscar Peterson (1925–2007), considered to have been one of the greatest pianists of all time, releasing over 200 recordings and receiving several Grammy Awards during his lifetime.[80] Also notable are country music stars Wilf Carter (1904-1996) and Hank Snow (1914–1999). Carter, from Nova Scotia, started out singing in the 1920s hosting a radio show in Alberta by 1930 before moving to America where he hosted another radio show scoring several hits. Snow, also from Nova Scotia, signed with RCA Victor in 1936 and went on to become one of America's biggest and most innovative country music superstars of the 1940s and 1950s.[81] Snow became a regular performer at the Grand Ole Opry on WSM in Nashville and released more than 45 LPs over his lifetime.[82] Snow was one of the inaugural inductees to the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame started in 2003.[82]

    Canada during the Second World War produced some patriotic songs, but they were not hits in the music industry sense.[70] A number of Canadian singers who learned their craft in Canadian opera companies in the 1930s went on to sing in major international opera houses.[83] Most notable from the 1940s is contralto singer Portia White (1911–1968). She achieved international fame because of her voice and stage presence.[84] As a Canadian female of African descent, her popularity helped to open previously closed doors for talented women who followed. She has been declared "A person of national historic significance" by the Government of Canada.[84] In 1964 she performed for Queen Elizabeth II, at the opening of the Confederation Centre of the Arts.[85]

    Paul Anka, 2007

    Following World War II a growth phase for Canadian bands was experienced, this time among school bands.[86] Rapid advances in the inclusion of instrumental music study in formal school curricula brought about fundamental changes to the philosophy of the band movement and the type of repertoire available.[86] The CHUM Chart debuted on May 27, 1957, under the name CHUM's Weekly Hit Parade, was in response to the fast-growing diversity of music that needed to be subdivided and categorized.[87] The CHUM charts were the longest-running Top 40 chart in Canada ending in 1986.[88]

    The 1950s would see Pop vocal and Doo Wop groups the Four Lads, Crew-Cuts and Diamonds score several hits internationally becoming the first Canadian groups to do so in the Rock and Roll era. The Crew-Cuts would become famous with their covers of Doo Wop hits like "Sh-Boom" and "Earth Angel" while the Diamonds would do the same with "Little Darlin", "Why Do Fools Fall In Love", "Silhouettes" and '"The Stroll". These records would be hits in America, Europe and Australia. 1958 saw its first Canadian rock and roll teen idol Paul Anka, who went to New York City where he auditioned for ABC with the song "Diana".[89] This song brought Anka instant stardom as it reached number one on the US Billboard charts.[90] "Diana" has gone on to be one of the best selling 45s in music history.[91] US-born rockabilly pioneer Ronnie Hawkins moved to Canada in 1958, where he became a key player in the Canadian blues and rock scene.[92] The 4th of October was declared "Ronnie Hawkins Day" by the city of Toronto when Hawkins was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.[93] He was also inducted into the Canadian Music Industry Hall of Fame[94] and his pioneering contribution to rockabilly has been recognized with induction into the Rockabilly Hall of Fame.[95] The first Canadian Rock band (as opposed to a vocal group like the Crew-Cuts and Diamonds) to score an international hit were the Beau-Marks with "Clap Your Hands" in 1960 which would make the charts in Canada, Australia and America and would get them invited the Ed Sullivan Show being the first Canadian band to do so.

    1960–1999

    [edit]
    See also: Canadian jazz
    Neil Young, 2009

    Canadian artists and Canadian ensembles were generally forced to turn toward the United States to establish healthy long lasting careers during the 1960s.[96] Canada would produce some of the world's most influential singer-songwriters during this time.[97] Gordon Lightfoot made his first chart appearance in June 1962. Among the most notable is Neil Young who has been inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame, Canada's Walk of Fame and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice.[98] Leonard Cohen has been inducted into both the Canadian Music Hall of Fame and the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame and is also a Companion of the Order of Canada.[99] Folk legend Joni Mitchell is an Alberta native, and has been inducted into both the Canadian Music Hall of Fame and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Other important Canadian Rock artists who would have significant international success in the 60's were the Guess Who, Steppenwolf and The Band along with members of Buffalo Springfield, the Lovin' Spoonful and the Mamas & the Papas. In Jazz pianist and arranger Gil Evans would be notable for his collaborations with Miles Davis on a series of classic albums and trumpeter Maynard Ferguson for his work with Stan Kenton.

    Walt Grealis of Toronto started in the music business with Apex Records in 1960, the Ontario distributor for Compo Company. He later joined London Records, where he worked until February 1964, when he then established RPM weekly trade magazine. From the first issue of RPM Weekly on February 24, 1964, to its final issue on November 13, 2000, RPM was the defining charts in Canada.[100] The American and British counterculture explosion and hippie movement had diverted music to that which was dominated by socially and American politically incisive lyrics by the late 1960s.[101] The music was an attempt to reflect upon the events of the time – civil rights, the war in Vietnam and the rise of feminism.[102] This led to the Canadian government passing Canadian content legislation to help Canadian artists. On January 18, 1971, regulations came into force requiring AM radio stations to devote 30 percent of their musical selections to Canadian content. Although this was (and still is) controversial, it quite clearly contributed to the development of a nascent Canadian pop star system.[68]

    With the introduction in the mid-1970s of mainstream music on FM radio stations, where it was common practice to program extended performances, musicians were no longer limited to songs of three minutes' duration as dictated by AM stations for decades.[96] Other notable musicians who have been one of the largest Canadian exports include the progressive rock band Rush, Triumph and Bryan Adams.[103][104] In the classical world, homegrown talent Canadian Brass was established in Toronto in 1970.

    Anne Murray

    Country music remained popular in Canada in the 1970s thanks to the CBC's The Tommy Hunter show and the adult contemporary radio format which benefited the international stardom of Anne Murray. However, the more mainstream sound would hinder Stompin' Tom Connors until he would have a revival in the 1990s.

    Canada's first nationwide music awards began as a reader poll conducted by Canadian music industry trade magazine RPM Weekly in December 1964.[105] A similar balloting process continued until 1970 when the RPM Gold Leaf Awards, as they were then known, were changed to the Juno Awards.[105] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences held the first Juno Award ceremony in 1975.[106] This was in response to rectifying the same concerns about promotion of Canadian artists that the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission had.[105]

    Bryan Adams, 2009

    Canadian music changed course in the 1980s and 1990s, the changing fast-paced culture was accompanied by an explosion in youth culture.[107] Until the mid-1960s, little attention was paid to music by Canadian daily newspapers except as news or novelty. With the introduction during the late 1970s of the "music critic", coverage began to rival that of any other topic. Canadian publications devoted to all styles of music either exclusively or in tandem with more general editorial content directed to young readers, was expanding exponentially.[108]

    The influence and innovations of Canadian hip hop came to the foreground in Canada, with musicians Like Maestro Fresh Wes, Snow, and the Dream Warriors, when music videos became an important marketing tool for Canadian musicians, with the debut of MuchMusic in 1984 and MusiquePlus in 1986. Now both English and French Canadian musicians had outlets to promote all forms of music through video in Canada.[109][110] The networks were not just an opportunity for artists to get their videos played—the networks created VideoFACT, a fund to help emerging artists produce their videos.[111]

    Canadian women at the end of the 20th century enjoyed greater international commercial success than ever before.[112] Canadian women set a new pinnacle of success, in terms financial, critical and in their immediate and strong influence on their respective genres.[113] They were the women and daughters who had fought for emancipation and equality a generation before.[113] Like Shania Twain, Alanis Morissette and most notable is French-Canadian singer, Celine Dion, who became Canada's best-selling music artist,[114][115] and who, in 2004, received the Chopard Diamond Award from the World Music Awards for surpassing 175 million in album sales, worldwide.[116][117][118][119]

    21st century

    [edit]
    See also: Caribbean music in Canada and Canadian hip hop
    Michael Bublé in February 2011

    The turn of the millennium was a time of incredible nationalism, at least as far as Canadian radio is concerned.[120] The 1971 CRTC rules (30% Canadian content on Canadian radio)[68] finally come into full effect and by the end of the 20th century radio stations would have to play 35% Canadian content.[121] This led to an explosion in the 21st century of Canadian pop musicians dominating the airwaves unlike any era before.[122] In 1996, VideoFACT launched PromoFACT, a funding program to help new artists produce electronic press kits and websites.[123] At about the same time, the CD (cheap to manufacture) replaced the vinyl album and cassette tape (expensive to manufacture).[124] Shortly thereafter, the Internet allowed musicians to directly distribute their music, thus bypassing the selection of the old-fashioned "record label".[27][125] Canada's mainstream music industry has suffered as a result of the internet and the boom of independent music. The drop in annual sales between 1999, the year that Napster's unauthorized peer-to-peer file sharing service launched,[126] and the end of 2004 was $465 million.[127]

    Drake performing at the Summer Sixteen Tour in Toronto in 2016

    In 2007, Canada joined the controversial Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement talks,[128] whose outcome will[speculation?] have a significant impact on the Canadian music industry.[127][129] In 2010 Canada introduced new copyright legislation.[130] The amended law makes hacking digital locks illegal, but enshrine into law the ability of purchasers to record and copy music from a CD to portable devices.[130]

    The Weeknd in 2021

    The early 2000s saw Canadian independent artists continue to expand their audience into the United States and beyond.[131] Mainstream Canadian artists with global recorded contracts such as Nelly Furtado, Avril Lavigne, Michael Bublé, Nickelback, Drake, The Weeknd, Shawn Mendes and Justin Bieber reached new heights in terms of international success, while dominating the American music charts.[132] The late 2010s and early 2020 saw the deaths of Gord Downie of The Tragically Hip and Neil Peart of Rush.

    Anthems

    [edit]
    Sheet music for Canada's national anthem. O Canada
    Main article: Anthems and nationalistic songs of Canada

    Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the first legal steps to independence by over 50 years. The earliest, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812.[133]

    Accolades

    [edit]
    Shania Twain holding her 2011 Juno Award

    The Canadian Music Hall of Fame established in 1976 honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.[139] The ceremony is held each year as part of Canada's main annual music industry awards, the Juno Awards.[140]

    The Governor General's Performing Arts Awards for Lifetime Artistic Achievement are the foremost honours presented for excellence in the performing arts, in the categories of dance, classical music, popular music, film, and radio and television broadcasting.[141] They were initiated in 1992 by then Governor General Ray Hnatyshyn, and winners receive $25,000 and a medal struck by the Royal Canadian Mint.[142]

    Canada also has many specific music awards, both for different genres and for geographic regions:

    Cultural and regional

    [edit]
    Music of Canada (by province or territory)
    Main articles: Music of Canadian cultures and Canadian music genres

    Distinctive music scenes have been an integral part of the cultural landscape of Canada. With Canada being vast in size, the country throughout its history has had regional music scenes, with a wide and diverse accumulation of styles and genres from many different individual communities, such as Inuit music, music of the Maritimes and Canadian fiddle music.[143]

    See also

    [edit]

    References

    [edit]

    Further reading

    [edit]
    [edit]
    Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

    Music of Canada

    View on Grokipedia
    from Grokipedia
    The music of encompasses the diverse traditions and genres produced by its inhabitants, from pre-colonial Indigenous practices involving chanting, drumming, and for ceremonial and purposes, to colonial-era folk influences from French and British settlers, and modern commercial outputs in rock, pop, hip-hop, and electronic music that have achieved substantial international commercial success. Indigenous musical forms, which span thousands of years and vary across First Nations, , and communities, emphasize communal instruments like hand drums, powwow drums, and rattles in social and spiritual contexts, often resisting full assimilation into dominant European styles post-contact. French cultural impacts, particularly in , fostered distinct traditions blending Celtic, Irish, and local folk elements evident by the late , while English Canada's music drew from British ballads and rural , contributing to a bifurcated national scene shaped by linguistic divides. The contemporary industry ranks as the eighth-largest globally by revenue, generating $660.3 million USD in through streaming dominance and live events that contribute over $10 billion annually to GDP and support more than 100,000 jobs, bolstered by artists like Drake and who rank among the top streamed performers worldwide. Defining policies such as quotas have promoted domestic output since the mid-20th century, fostering exports like from Rush and pop ballads from , though they have sparked debates over market distortions versus cultural preservation.

    Historical Development

    Indigenous Musical Traditions

    Indigenous musical traditions in Canada encompass the diverse practices of over 600 First Nations groups, communities, and peoples, originating thousands of years before European contact and serving functions such as , healing, warfare, and social bonding. These traditions emphasize vocal expression as the primary instrument, with songs structured around repetition, melismatic phrasing, and syllabic texts drawn from oral histories or spiritual narratives, often performed solo or in groups to transmit cultural knowledge across generations. Percussion dominated accompaniment, featuring membranophones like frame drums made from wood and animal hides, which symbolized the heartbeat of the earth or community in many First Nations cultures, and idiophones such as rattles constructed from gourds, shells, or hooves for rhythmic emphasis during dances and ceremonies. Regional variations highlight the adaptability of these practices to environments and resources. Among Woodland and Plains First Nations, water drums—filled with water to alter pitch—and log drums provided deep, resonant tones for communal gatherings, while melodic instruments like cedar flutes or bone whistles appeared sporadically for solo reflection or courtship songs, primarily in southern and western groups. Northwest Coast traditions incorporated polyphonic and complex rhythms, using box drums, horns, and whistles to evoke natural elements in ceremonies. centered on frame drums for energetic dances accompanying (katajjaq), a duo vocal form where women faced each other to produce interlocking rhythms imitating animal calls, wind, or rifles, originally as a winter game to pass time while men hunted. Métis traditions, emerging from 17th- and 18th-century intermarriages, fused First Nations elements with European imports like the , introduced via fur traders, resulting in a distinctive style with altered tunings, drone strings, and syncopated rhythms for dances such as the Red River Jig. This music blended syllabic or songs with French-Canadian reels and Scottish strathspeys, often performed at social events with spoons or triangles for percussion, reflecting the Métis' hybrid identity while preserving Indigenous rhythmic patterns like the "shuffle" beat. Across all groups, music reinforced social structures and spiritual connections, with restrictions on performance tied to gender, clan, or initiation rites, ensuring sacred knowledge remained contextually appropriate.

    Colonial Foundations (1600s–1700s)

    The musical foundations of colonial Canada emerged with French settlement in during the early , where European traditions were adapted to frontier conditions. Primarily religious and military in nature, music featured church bells signaling daily routines, drums and fifes in troop movements, and sacred chants during masses led by Jesuit missionaries who arrived in 1611. These elements served practical roles in maintaining order and morale among sparse populations, with Gregorian plainsong and simple hymns dominating worship in wooden chapels lacking sophisticated instrumentation. Contemporary accounts, though fragmentary and drawn from missionary diaries and visitor logs, indicate music's role in evangelization efforts; used familiar European melodies to teach Christian doctrine to Indigenous groups, contrasting sharply with native oral traditions. The first documented arrived in in 1661, imported for the cathedral, enhancing polyphonic capabilities and symbolizing growing ecclesiastical investment; subsequent organs were installed in the Ursuline convent and Notre-Dame-de-Québec by the late . Secular expressions included French folk songs recounting voyages and harvests, often sung unaccompanied or with rudimentary instruments like the or during communal gatherings. By the , as expanded, dance music gained prominence in social life, with contredanses and minuets adapted from performed at informal bals in seigneurial halls or forts. Violinists, often self-taught soldiers or , provided accompaniment, reflecting the era's influences on a modest scale limited by resource scarcity. The 1759 fall of to British forces shifted dynamics in core territories, introducing English ballads and psalmody in Protestant enclaves, though French Catholic musical practices persisted under the of 1774, which preserved civil law and religious freedoms. British outposts like Halifax, founded in 1749, incorporated regimental bands with oboes and bassoons for parades, laying groundwork for Anglo traditions in Atlantic colonies.

    19th-Century Emergence

    The 19th century marked the gradual emergence of organized musical activity in Canada, driven by immigration, urbanization, and the push for national identity following in 1867. Waves of immigrants between 1815 and 1850 introduced expanded repertoires of hymns, ballads, and band music, while French-Canadian traditions persisted in through church choirs and folk practices. Military bands proliferated during conflicts like the and subsequent colonial tensions, providing public performances that popularized instrumental music across settlements. Choral societies, such as Montreal's Société de musique sacrée founded in the , fostered communal singing of European oratorios and masses, laying groundwork for local performance ensembles. Patriotic compositions symbolized growing Canadian distinctiveness amid loyalty to the British Crown. Alexander Muir, a schoolteacher, penned "" in , shortly after , extolling the as a and referencing historical figures like ; the song gained rapid popularity at public gatherings and schools. In , Calixa composed the music for "" in 1880, premiered on June 24 at a St. Jean-Baptiste Day banquet in with lyrics by Judge Adolphe-Basile Routhier, reflecting aspirations for a unified French-Canadian identity within the Dominion. These anthemic works, though derivative of Romantic European styles, incorporated local themes and became staples in civic ceremonies.) Efforts to document and elevate indigenous folk traditions paralleled institutional growth. Ernest Gagnon published Chansons populaires du Canada in 1865, compiling 100 French-Canadian folk songs with annotations, which highlighted oral heritage from and settlers and spurred interest in native musical forms over imported genres. Composers like Guillaume Couture, trained in , returned to conduct the Philharmonic Society from 1880 and composed choral works such as Jean le Précurseur, advancing professional standards in sacred and secular music. By century's end, piano sales surged with middle-class expansion, enabling amateur composition and performance, though professional output remained limited and stylistically European. These developments signaled the inception of a Canadian musical consciousness, albeit nascent and regionally varied.

    Early 20th Century (1900–1949)

    The early 20th century marked a period of institutionalization and technological advancement in Canadian music, with the establishment of music faculties at universities such as the University of Toronto in 1918 and McGill University in 1920, alongside the formation of semiprofessional orchestras in major cities like Montréal, Toronto, and Québec City. Recordings gained prominence through companies like the Berliner Gramophone in Montréal, which facilitated the distribution of 78 RPM discs, shifting consumption from sheet music to phonographs by the mid-1920s. Radio broadcasts began in the 1920s, exemplified by station CFCF in Montréal in 1920, amplifying the reach of both local and imported music. These developments coincided with the First World War, which inspired patriotic songs and disrupted live performances, followed by post-war recovery that included new orchestras like the Toronto Symphony in 1922. In classical music, composers drew on international styles while incorporating Canadian elements, with Healey Willan, who immigrated from England in 1913, contributing extensively through choral works, organ music, and symphonies such as No. 1 in 1936 and No. 2 in 1948, earning him recognition as a foundational figure in Canadian composition. Ernest MacMillan produced one of Canada's early string quartets in 1921, and Robert Nathaniel Dett, born in Niagara Falls, Ontario in 1882, composed choral arrangements of African American spirituals, including works performed by his choirs before his death in 1943. Rodolphe Mathieu and Claude Champagne advanced chamber and orchestral forms, reflecting growing technical assurance in the interwar years. Competition festivals, starting in Edmonton in 1908, and large-scale events like C.A.E. Harriss's Musical Festivals in 1903 involving over 4,000 participants, fostered amateur and professional skills across communities. Popular music emphasized dance bands and early country influences, with Guy Lombardo forming the Royal Canadians in 1924 in , achieving hits like "Charmaine" in 1927 and becoming known for sweet jazz styles broadcast widely on radio. Early recordings featured artists such as Henry Burr, who recorded under pseudonyms, and songs like Geoffrey O’Hara's "" in 1918. Country fiddler Don Messer and singers Wilf Carter (as Montana Slim) and rose in the 1930s and 1940s, drawing from American models but gaining domestic popularity via radio. Folk traditions were preserved through field recordings by Marius Barbeau and promoted in festivals from 1927 to 1934, countering the dominance of urban popular forms. The Second World War further emphasized morale-boosting music, continuing trends from the First World War's patriotic repertoires.

    Mid- to Late 20th Century (1950–1999)

    The post-World War II era marked the arrival of rock 'n' roll in Canada during the 1950s, with teen idol Paul Anka from Ottawa achieving global breakthrough via his self-written single "Diana," released in 1957, which topped charts in the United States and United Kingdom and sold over 10 million copies worldwide. Early rock ensembles, such as Toronto's The Crew-Cuts and The Diamonds, adapted rhythm and blues influences, while Ronnie Hawkins formed The Hawks in 1958, laying groundwork for later acts like The Band. Concurrently, folk traditions persisted, but commercial dominance by American imports limited domestic visibility until the 1960s folk revival, propelled by performers like Ian and Sylvia Tyson, who debuted their folk duo in 1959 and influenced singer-songwriters. The 1960s saw Canadian artists seeking international platforms for recognition, exemplified by Gordon Lightfoot's debut album Lightfoot! in 1966 and his first RPM best folk singer award in 1965, alongside Joni Mitchell's folk compositions gaining traction after her 1968 move to the . Rock evolved with echoes, as bands like formed in 1965 and achieved success with "American Woman" in 1970. The Canadian Radio-Television Commission (CRTC) introduced (CanCon) regulations in 1970, mandating 30% Canadian music airplay on AM radio from January 18, 1971, countering market saturation and fostering local production, which rose from negligible levels to thousands of releases annually by decade's end. The , originating as RPM Awards in 1970, formalized industry recognition starting in 1971, honoring achievements amid this policy shift. Into the 1970s, CanCon propelled folk-rock icons like , whose tenure with from 1969 yielded hits such as "" (1970), and Anne Murray's "Snowbird" topping charts in 1970. band Rush, formed in 1968, released their debut album in 1974 and sold over 20 million albums globally by the 1980s through technical prowess in tracks like "" (1981). Bachman-Turner Overdrive's "Takin' Care of Business" (1973) exemplified export success. The 1980s amplified pop-rock with ' Reckless (1984), featuring "" and selling 12 million copies, bolstered by MuchMusic's launch in 1984 for video promotion. Heavy metal and new wave acts like Triumph and emerged, though punk influences from D.O.A. (formed 1978) highlighted underground vitality. The 1990s diversified with , as The Tragically Hip's (1992) achieved multi-platinum status in , and Alanis Morissette's (1995) sold over 33 million copies worldwide, earning her five in 1996. Shania Twain's country-pop fusion The Woman in Me (1995) and (1997) dominated charts, selling 100 million records combined, while Celine Dion's (1996) won Album of the Year at the Grammys. Indie labels like Nettwerk supported experimental edges, but CanCon's framework sustained a amid , with over 1 million copies sold of a 1996 Juno 25th-anniversary . This era solidified Canada's export prowess, with regulatory support enabling sustained commercial viability against international competition.

    21st-Century Transformations (2000–Present)

    The Canadian music industry experienced a profound shift in the early 2000s with the advent of digital distribution, initially through file-sharing platforms and later legal downloads, which disrupted traditional physical sales models dominated by CDs. By 2005, digital music sales began to contribute meaningfully to revenues, though overall industry earnings declined amid piracy concerns before recovering via platforms like iTunes. Independent and indie rock scenes flourished, with bands such as Arcade Fire gaining international acclaim following the release of Funeral in 2004, which earned a Grammy for Best Alternative Album in 2005 and propelled Montreal's music ecosystem. This period also saw pop-punk and alternative acts like Sum 41 and Avril Lavigne achieve global hits, with Lavigne's Let Go (2002) selling over 16 million copies worldwide. Hip-hop and urban genres transformed Canadian music from the mid-2000s onward, particularly in , where a distinct sound emerged blending influences, R&B, and trap elements. Artists like and laid groundwork in the early 2000s, but the genre's mainstream breakthrough came with Drake's debut So Far Gone (2009), which topped charts and established Toronto's "6ix" as a hip-hop hub. By the 2010s, Drake's dominance was evident, with his music streamed 28 billion times globally from 2010 to 2020, making him the decade's most-streamed artist in Canada. followed suit, achieving multiple number-one singles starting with "" in 2015, and amassing billions in streams that underscored Canadian urban music's export potential. Streaming's rise from the revolutionized consumption and revenue structures, with audio streaming accounting for 79% of Canadian recorded music revenues by 2024, driving total industry growth of 129% from $397 million CAD in 2014 to $909 million CAD. Platforms like enabled direct global access, boosting royalties for Canadian artists; alone generated over $435 million CAD in royalties for them between 2018 and 2023, more than doubling prior levels. In 2023, operating revenues reached $903.3 million CAD, up 21.2% from 2021, fueled by subscription streaming increases of 8.4% to $380.6 million USD. This digital pivot favored high-streaming urban and pop acts, including and , who topped global charts in the , while challenging niche genres reliant on physical or live sales. Government policies like regulations adapted slowly, prompting debates over their efficacy in a borderless streaming era. Contemporary transformations include electronic, indie electronic, and genre-blending innovations, with artists like and earning international recognition for experimental sounds rooted in Canadian . Live events rebounded post-2020 restrictions, contributing to overall sector resilience, though regional disparities persist, with urban centers like and dominating exports. By 2024, global recorded music revenues reflected sustained growth, with Canada's market mirroring international trends toward paid subscriptions and algorithmic discovery.

    Genres and Styles

    Folk and Traditional Music

    Canadian folk and traditional music, distinct from Indigenous and Francophone traditions, emerged from the oral practices of British, Irish, and Scottish settlers arriving primarily in the 17th and 18th centuries, adapting European ballads, reels, and work songs to North American contexts such as maritime labor, lumbering, and farming. These songs emphasized narrative storytelling about daily hardships and triumphs, including sea voyages, fishing disasters, and frontier expansion, preserving melodic structures while incorporating local references like place names and events. Transmission occurred through community gatherings like barn dances and harvest fairs, where participants improvised lyrics and tunes without notation, fostering regional variants over time. In the Maritime provinces, Celtic influences dominate, with Scottish and Irish immigrants introducing fiddle-driven styles that evolved into distinctive regional forms. Cape Breton Island's fiddling tradition, rooted in 19th-century migrations from around 1800–1830, retains archaic Scottish techniques such as open-string drones and rapid ornamentation, often outperforming contemporary Scottish playing in fidelity to pre-industrial forms due to geographic isolation. Accompanied by or earlier foot percussion, these sessions feature strathspeys, reels, and marches performed at céilidhs, emphasizing rhythmic drive over melodic variation. Newfoundland's repertoire, collected extensively by folklorist MacEdward Leach between 1949 and 1951, includes over 700 English-language ballads, jigs, and hornpipes reflecting and Irish origins, with supplementing in . Central Canada's Anglo traditions, documented by collectors like Edith Fowke from the onward, center on Ontario's lumberjack ballads and shanty songs from the 19th-century industry, featuring call-and-response structures for work coordination in camps employing up to 10,000 men seasonally. Instruments such as the , mouth , and bones provided portable accompaniment, with guitar adoption post-1900 reflecting broader Anglo-American exchanges. Early systematic collection began with W. Roy Mackenzie's fieldwork in 1908, yielding over 200 songs that highlighted narrative continuity from British prototypes. Preservation efforts intensified mid-20th century through recordings and festivals, countering urbanization's erosion of oral practices; for instance, Helen Creighton's Maritime collections from the 1930s–1950s captured over 4,000 items, emphasizing unaccompanied singing to maintain authenticity. These traditions underscore causal links between immigration patterns—such as 40,000 Scottish arrivals to between 1773 and 1843—and musical retention, where economic isolation in rural enclaves minimized external dilution until radio's rise in the 1920s.

    Rock, Pop, and Mainstream

    Rock music in Canada emerged in the mid-1950s, drawing heavily from American rock 'n' roll and rhythm and blues influences, with early performers adapting these styles through local bands and radio broadcasts. Pioneering acts like Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks, formed in 1958, blended rockabilly and R&B, achieving regional success before members transitioned to The Band, which released the influential album Music from Big Pink in 1968. The Guess Who, established in Winnipeg in 1962, marked a breakthrough with their 1970 hit "American Woman," which topped the US Billboard Hot 100, signifying Canada's entry into international rock prominence. Progressive and hard rock gained traction in the 1970s, exemplified by Rush, founded in Toronto in 1968, whose 1976 album 2112 sold over 1 million copies and established their technical prowess in the genre. , born in 1945, contributed folk-rock fusion through solo work like (1972), which reached number one on the and earned quadruple platinum certification in . Bachman-Turner Overdrive, formed in 1973, delivered arena rock anthems such as "Takin' Care of Business" (1974), achieving multiple gold records and US chart success. Later decades saw rise with bands like , whose 1992 album sold over 1 million units domestically, reflecting regional storytelling amid influences. Pop music paralleled rock's growth, with teen idols like leading in the late 1950s; his 1957 single "Diana" sold 10 million copies worldwide. Anne Murray's 1970 crossover hit "Snowbird" topped adult contemporary charts, earning her a Grammy and establishing country-pop viability. The 1980s and 1990s produced global stars, including , whose 1984 album Reckless sold 12 million copies, driven by hits like "Summer of '69." Alanis Morissette's (1995) achieved 33 million sales globally, with "" peaking at number one on alternative charts, showcasing raw emotional pop-rock. Mainstream success intensified in the late 20th century, with Celine Dion's Falling into You (1996) selling over 32 million copies and winning Album of the Year at the Grammys, propelled by the "My Heart Will Go On" single from Titanic (1997). Shania Twain's Come On Over (1997) moved 40 million units, blending pop with country elements for broad appeal. In the 2000s, Avril Lavigne's debut Let Go (2002) sold 16 million copies, while Justin Bieber's 2009 discovery via led to My World 2.0 (2010) debuting at number one on the 200. Michael Bublé's jazz-infused pop, as in It's Time (2005), garnered 8 million sales and multiple Junos, bridging standards with contemporary production. These artists' chart dominance underscores Canada's export of polished, commercially viable rock and pop, often amplified by digital platforms and international collaborations.

    Hip-Hop, Rap, and Urban

    Hip-hop and rap in Canada originated in the late through and early block parties in , drawing from American influences amid the city's growing multicultural population from , African, and Asian diasporas. The genre developed slowly compared to rock due to limited radio support and cultural emphasis on other styles, but emerged as the epicenter by the 1980s, with pioneers like performing as early as 1985. Early recordings included the 1982 single "The Bum Rap" by Singing Fools, marking one of the first Canadian rap releases. A breakthrough came in 1989 with Maestro Fresh Wes's "Let Your Backbone Slide," the first Canadian rap single to achieve gold certification (50,000 units), reach the Hot Rap Singles chart, and top Canada's RPM singles chart. This track from his debut album Symphony in Effect not only established hip-hop's commercial viability in but also earned a Juno Award for Single of the Year in 1991, the first for a rap song. The saw further growth with acts like Dream Warriors and , whose 1998 collaboration "Northern Touch" featuring , , and others became an anthem, peaking at number one on Canada's hip-hop chart and earning a Juno for Best Rap Recording in 1999. The 2000s marked a "golden era" in Toronto, with artists like Kardinal Offishall and K-os blending rap with reggae and soul, while independent labels fostered local talent. Drake's ascent from 2009 mixtape So Far Gone—which spawned hits like "Best I Ever Had" and won a Juno for Rap Recording of the Year—propelled Canadian hip-hop globally, introducing melodic flows influenced by R&B and Toronto's immigrant sounds. By 2010, his debut album Thank Me Later debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, and he has since amassed over 170 billion global streams, multiple diamond-certified singles in Canada, and a pivotal role in elevating the "Toronto sound" characterized by atmospheric production and patois-infused lyrics. Drake's OVO Sound label has signed and promoted Canadian rappers like Tory Lanez and Nav, expanding the scene's reach. Urban music in Canada, encompassing rap-adjacent R&B and contemporary styles, gained traction alongside hip-hop, with Toronto's diverse scene producing artists like , whose 2011 mixtapes and pioneered with dark, synth-driven aesthetics rooted in the city's nightlife. Regional variations include Vancouver's conscious rap via and Montreal's bilingual scene with artists like Samian, reflecting Indigenous and francophone influences. CANCON regulations mandating 35% on radio since 1971 aided visibility, though critics note persistent underrepresentation in mainstream outlets compared to U.S. imports. By 2023, Canadian hip-hop acts accounted for over 20% of Juno nominations in rap categories, signaling maturation.

    Classical, Jazz, and Experimental

    in Canada traces its roots to European traditions introduced by settlers from the 1630s onward, initially manifesting in and rudimentary ensembles. By the 19th century, formal training emerged with institutions like the Montreal Conservatory, fostering composers such as , who arrived from in 1913 and composed over 250 works including symphonies and choral pieces until his death in 1968. Other notable figures include R. Nathaniel Dett, born in 1882, whose choral compositions blended African-American spirituals with classical forms, earning him recognition as a pioneer in incorporating folk elements into symphonic writing. Mid-20th-century composers like Oscar Morawetz, who immigrated from in 1940, produced extensively performed orchestral works, with his Symphony No. 2 premiered in 1961 by the . Canada's classical scene expanded post-World War II with the establishment of national orchestras, such as the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra founded in 1919 and the National Arts Centre Orchestra in 1969, which have premiered works by domestic talents including Jean Coulthard, whose Lyric Sonatinas for piano reflect modal influences from her upbringing. Pianist , born in 1932, gained international acclaim for his 1955 recording of Bach's , which sold over 2 million copies and redefined interpretive standards through his precise, non-vibrato technique. Contemporary composers continue this legacy, with figures like Alexina Louie integrating Eastern and Western elements in pieces commissioned by major ensembles. Jazz arrived in Canada around 1914 via American touring bands, with the first documented concert by Bill Johnson's Original Creole Orchestra in . The genre flourished in 's cabarets during the 1920s era, drawing U.S. musicians across the border and nurturing local talent amid lax liquor laws that boosted nightlife venues. , born in in 1925 to West Indian immigrants, emerged as the preeminent Canadian jazz figure; his trio with Ray Brown and Irving Ashby debuted at in 1949, leading to over 200 albums and eight before his death in 2007. The post-1950s jazz scene diversified with fusion and influences, supported by festivals like the founded in 1980, which annually attracts over 2 million attendees and features Canadian artists blending traditions. Vocalists and instrumentalists such as , born in 1964, have achieved global success, with her albums selling millions and earning multiple Grammys for sophisticated jazz-pop interpretations. Experimental music in Canada gained traction in the mid-20th century through electroacoustic innovations, exemplified by Hugh Le Caine's inventions of electronic instruments in the 1940s at the National Research Council, influencing early tape compositions. István Anhalt organized Canada's first tape music concert in 1959 at the , featuring works that explored synthesized sounds and spatial audio techniques. Quebec's scene burgeoned in the with Serge Garant's promotion of mixed-media pieces, laying groundwork for interdisciplinary experiments combining acoustics and electronics. Modern experimentalism thrives in festivals like MUTEK, launched in 2000 in , showcasing glitch, ambient, and immersive audio-visual works by artists such as , whose drone compositions have earned critical acclaim for textural depth. Improvisational collectives in and , including free jazz ensembles, push boundaries with noise and modular synth explorations, while labels like DAME Records, founded by Joane Hétu, document Quebec's ongoing contributions since the 1990s. Events such as Suoni per il Popolo, running annually since 2001, host over 50 performances blending , noise, and , underscoring Canada's role in sustaining global vitality.

    Regional and Cultural Variations

    Francophone Quebec Music

    Francophone Quebec music encompasses the traditions, genres, and artists rooted in the French-speaking province of , distinct from Anglophone Canadian music due to linguistic and cultural preservation efforts. Its origins trace to 17th-century French who brought ballads, work songs, and tunes, evolving into a style by the through fusions with traditions and local adaptations, often featuring unaccompanied vocals in call-and-response patterns or solo renditions. The emerged as the primary instrument by the early , accompanying reels, jigs, and quadrilles central to rural social gatherings like veillées (evening gatherings). Commercial recordings of French-Canadian songs began in 1896, with the industry expanding rapidly until 1921, capturing folk material amid that threatened oral traditions. The mid-20th century saw a revival, catalyzed by the Quiet Revolution of the —a period of secularization and cultural assertion under leaders like René Lévesque—which elevated music as a vehicle for Québécois identity, shifting from church-dominated to politically charged québécoise. Pioneers like Félix Leclerc, active from the 1950s to 1980s, professionalized folk songwriting with poetic, nationalist themes, performing internationally and influencing a generation. Genres diversified post-1960, blending traditional elements with global influences: folk persisted in artists like , whose works incorporated 's rural motifs, while rock and pop emerged in French via figures like , who fused psychedelic sounds with local vernacular in the late 1960s. Groups such as in the 1970s popularized accessible rock-chanson hybrids, drawing on everyday life, and later acts like sustained folk-rock vitality into the 2000s with narrative-driven albums. By the , the scene includes (e.g., Coeur de Pirate's chamber-pop since 2008), hip-hop (e.g., FouKi's trap-infused tracks), and rock (e.g., ' satirical punk-pop), supported by language policies mandating French content on radio, fostering a robust domestic market despite English dominance globally. This linguistic focus has preserved distinctiveness but limited crossover success outside francophone spheres, with exports like Céline Dion's early French albums bridging to international stardom after 1990.

    Anglophone and Western Influences

    Anglophone Canadian music, encompassing traditions in provinces such as , , and the Prairies, draws predominantly from British and Irish settler traditions established since the 17th century. Ballads, tunes, and work songs imported from the were adapted to local contexts, including lumbering in 's backwoods and seafaring in Atlantic ports, where oral transmission preserved variants like Newfoundland's unique styles. These foundations emphasized narrative songs about migration, hardship, and daily labor, with minimal deviation from European prototypes until the . American proximity and radio broadcasts from the 1920s onward introduced profound influences, particularly in , , and emerging rock forms. , rooted in British folk but hybridized with Appalachian styles, gained traction via U.S. stations like WLS Chicago's , leading to early Canadian adopters who emulated American cowboy archetypes. In rock and pop, Anglophone artists in the 1950s–1960s mirrored U.S. and sounds, with bands covering hits from and before developing local variants; this reliance stemmed from market dominance, where Canadian radio favored imported content until regulatory interventions. Western Canada's Anglophone music scene amplifies country and western traditions, shaped by ranching economies in and since the late . The open prairies and cattle drives fostered a cowboy culture that paralleled U.S. Southwest developments, yet retained British folk undercurrents in and string band formats; pioneers like Wilf Carter, who debuted as "Montana Slim" in the 1930s, blended these with American styles to pioneer Canadian recordings. Institutions like the , established in 1912, institutionalized country performances, boosting regional artists and events that emphasized contests and square dances. Celtic-infused also emerged here, merging amplified melodies with Western landscapes, as seen in bands from to B.C. Despite this, Western traditions often hybridize heavily with U.S. imports, reflecting sparse indigenous folk reservoirs compared to .

    Indigenous and Northern Styles

    Indigenous musical traditions in Canada encompass the practices of First Nations, , and peoples, serving spiritual, ceremonial, social, and storytelling functions across diverse cultures. These traditions predate European contact and emphasize vocalization, percussion, and rhythmic elements tied to oral histories and environmental interactions, with over 600 distinct First Nations languages influencing lyrical and melodic structures. First Nations music prominently features frame drums, hand drums, and rattles—such as or cow horn varieties—for powwows, healing ceremonies, and dances, where songs transmit knowledge and invoke spiritual power. Flutes crafted from wood, bone, or cedar provide melodic solos, often evoking solitude or courtship themes in Plains and traditions. from northern regions like centers on katajjaq, or , a competitive vocal game traditionally performed by pairs of women using breathy, rhythmic sounds to mimic Arctic phenomena such as wind, animals, or water, originating as entertainment during men's hunting absences. This practice, documented since at least the , nearly vanished by the mid-20th century due to missionary suppression and residential schools but saw revival efforts starting in the 1970s through recordings and cultural programs. Contemporary innovators like , from , have expanded katajjaq into experimental forms blending it with electronic and rock elements, earning the 2014 for her album . Métis styles integrate music, , and step-dancing, drawing from Indigenous rhythms fused with Scottish and Irish influences introduced during the fur era, commonly featured at community gatherings in the prairies and beyond. In northern territories including the , , and , music blends these Indigenous roots with introduced genres like and folk, often using guitars for songs about land and resilience, as showcased at festivals such as Folk on the Rocks since 1980. Notable figures include , a born in 1941, whose folk-protest music since the addresses and earned her a 1982 Academy Award for the Broken Chain soundtrack score. These traditions persist amid modern fusions, with Indigenous artists comprising about 5% of Canadian Music Week performers by 2021, reflecting ongoing cultural adaptation.

    Industry Structure and Policies

    Broadcasting Regulations and CANCON

    The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), established under the Act, enforces (CANCON) regulations to promote domestic cultural expression in . These rules mandate that commercial radio stations air a minimum quota of Canadian musical selections, specifically requiring at least 35% of content to qualify as Canadian during broadcast hours. The policy aims to counter the dominance of foreign, particularly American, music on Canadian airwaves, ensuring local artists receive exposure that might otherwise be limited by market dynamics favoring international hits. Eligibility for CANCON status is determined by the MAPL system, introduced by the CRTC in 1971, which evaluates songs based on four criteria: Music composition by a Canadian, by a Canadian, recording in Canada, and written by a Canadian. A selection qualifies if at least two of these elements are met, with a Canadian defined as a citizen, permanent resident, or certain other residents under CRTC guidelines. This point-based approach applies primarily to audio formats like singles and albums, excluding non-musical elements such as spoken-word content. The regulations originated on January 18, 1971, with an initial 30% quota for Canadian music on AM radio, expanding to FM stations and increasing to 35% for effective January 3, 1999. Compliance is monitored through self-reporting by licensees, audited by the CRTC, with violations potentially leading to fines or license revocation. These mandates have demonstrably boosted the visibility of Canadian acts, correlating with commercial breakthroughs for artists in genres like rock and pop during the 1970s and 1980s, though some industry observers note initial listener resistance to quota-driven programming. While traditional radio remains bound by these quotas, the rise of digital streaming services has prompted ongoing CRTC consultations as of 2025, with no equivalent percentage-based requirements imposed on platforms like or . In September 2025, the CRTC initiated hearings on obligations for music streamers, focusing on measures and financial contributions rather than mandates, amid arguments from broadcasters for quota reductions to 25% and from music labels for enhanced promotion of CANCON. Critics contend that rigid quotas may distort market signals and hinder innovation, while proponents credit them with sustaining a viable domestic industry against global competition.

    Government Funding Mechanisms

    The primary federal mechanism for supporting Canadian music is the Canada Music Fund (CMF), administered by the , which allocates resources to foster the creation, production, promotion, and distribution of Canadian musical works. In 2024, the CMF received a $32 million top-up to enhance support for music creation amid industry challenges. The fund's Individual Initiatives component, for instance, provides non-repayable contributions to emerging and established artists for activities such as recording, touring, and , with eligibility restricted to Canadian citizens or permanent residents demonstrating professional intent. Funding derives from federal appropriations, emphasizing commercial viability and cultural export potential over purely artistic merit. Complementing the CMF, the Canada Council for the Arts disburses grants through programs like Explore and Create, which in the 2023-24 fiscal year awarded $59 million specifically to music and sound projects, supporting over 760 applicants at a 21.5% success rate. These grants target professional artists and organizations for research, creation, and presentation, with peer-assessed decisions prioritizing artistic excellence and feasibility. Eligibility requires Canadian residency and peer recognition as professionals, while funding principles stress equity, diversity, and inclusion without compromising merit-based allocation. The Council's Musical Instrument Bank further aids classical musicians by lending 20 high-value instruments on a competitive basis. Provincial governments supplement federal efforts; for example, the Ontario Arts Council invested $52.2 million across arts in 2024-25, including music creation projects that fund composition, recording, and performance for Ontario-based creators, often requiring matching contributions to leverage public dollars. Specialized organizations like FACTOR (Foundation Assisting Canadian Talent on Recordings) channel CMF contributions alongside levies from private radio stations—approximately 0.75% of broadcasters' revenues—to finance sound recordings, , , and for independent artists and labels. In practice, FACTOR's programs prioritize genres with commercial potential, such as pop and rock, over niche experimental forms, reflecting a causal link between funding criteria and market-oriented outcomes rather than broad subsidization. Similarly, Quebec's Musicaction mirrors FACTOR for francophone music, ensuring regional linguistic priorities. Provincial examples include British Columbia's Amplify BC, which provides for sound recording and live performance development, and Alberta's individual project grants for music composition and production, both tied to economic multipliers like job creation in the sector. These mechanisms collectively aim to counteract structural disadvantages faced by Canadian artists in a U.S.-dominated market, with empirical evidence from CMF evaluations showing increased recording outputs and export revenues post-. However, allocation relies on bureaucratic and application success rates below 25%, potentially favoring established networks over raw talent, as evidenced by recurring calls for streamlined, performance-based reforms. Provincial varies by jurisdiction; allocates about $7 million annually through SK Arts for grants, while emphasizes ROI through required private matches. Overall, government intervention totals hundreds of millions yearly, but critics argue it distorts market signals by sustaining unprofitable acts, though data indicate sustained industry GDP contributions exceeding $5 billion pre-pandemic.

    Economic Realities and Market Dynamics

    The Canadian music industry's recorded music revenues reached in 2024, marking continued growth driven primarily by streaming, which accounted for nearly 79% of total recorded revenues. This figure reflects a 129% increase from $397 million CAD in 2014, underscoring streaming's role in reversing earlier declines from physical sales and . However, the domestic market remains modest relative to Canada's population of approximately 40 million, with Canadian artists capturing only 10.5% of total streams within the country in 2022, highlighting heavy reliance on international consumption. Live music events represent a larger economic pillar, contributing $10.92 billion to 's GDP in 2023, generating $3.73 billion in , and supporting over 101,640 jobs with $5.84 billion in labor income. This sector's vitality stems from venue operations, touring, and ancillary spending, though it faces vulnerabilities from economic downturns and regulatory costs, such as proposed mandates on streaming platforms that could elevate ticket prices or reduce promoter viability. Overall, the music sector's export strength positions as the third-largest global exporter of recorded music, with artists ranking third worldwide in share of top singles behind only the and , a disproportionate success attributable to English-language accessibility and digital platforms rather than domestic protections alone. Market dynamics reveal tensions between free-market streaming gains and interventionist policies. Canadian content regulations (CANCON), mandating airplay quotas, have historically shielded domestic artists from dominance but correlate with stagnant innovation critiques, as evidenced by low organic domestic market share despite quotas. Government subsidies, including $32 million allocated to the Music Fund for 2024–2026 to support artist development, constitute a fraction of total revenues (less than 5% of recorded music figures) and primarily aid mid-tier acts, potentially distorting competition by favoring grant-dependent creators over purely market-tested talent. Recent CRTC proposals for streaming levies risk inflating costs, driving subscribers to —estimated to erode revenues despite streaming's prior mitigation—or reducing platform investments in , as industry analyses warn of unintended backlash against export momentum. persists as a drag, with studies indicating hidden consumption patterns that divert funds from legitimate channels, though streaming's convenience has curbed it compared to the pre-2010s era. These realities underscore a sector thriving on global scalability yet constrained by a small home market and policy overlays that prioritize cultural preservation over unadulterated commercial incentives.

    Key Figures, Achievements, and Criticisms

    Influential Artists and Groups

    ![Neil Young in concert](./assets/Neil_Young_in_Nottingham_2009_kk has exerted profound influence on rock and through his raw songwriting and versatile guitar style, inspiring artists across generations including members of and Nirvana. His 1972 album topped charts in the and , selling over 5 million copies globally and earning quadruple in . , another cornerstone figure, revolutionized confessional songwriting with albums like (1971), which critics credit with elevating personal narrative in , influencing artists from Prince to . Cohen's poetic and minimalist arrangements, as in (1967), shaped indie and alternative scenes, with covers by Jeff Buckley underscoring his enduring legacy. Rock groups such as achieved international acclaim with complex compositions blending and , selling over 40 million albums worldwide by 2024. Their 1981 album Moving Pictures has sold more than 6 million copies in the US alone, featuring hits like "" that popularized technical proficiency in the genre. pioneered Canadian rock exports in the late and , topping the with "" in 1970 and influencing subsequent acts. In pop and country, holds the record as Canada's top-selling artist, with over 200 million equivalent album sales worldwide, driven by (1996), which won Album of the Year at the Grammys and sold 32 million copies. , blending country and pop, has sold more than 100 million records, with (1997) becoming the best-selling album by a female artist in the US at over 20 million units. contributed power ballads like "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" (1991), which held the UK number-one spot for 16 weeks and sold 15 million copies globally. Contemporary hip-hop and R&B artists like Drake have transformed global charts, selling over 170 million records and pioneering the fusion of rap, singing, and melody that reshaped streaming-era hip-hop. His 2016 album Views debuted at number one on the for 13 non-consecutive weeks, setting records for streaming dominance. , with 22 —the most for any artist—has amassed billions of streams, with "" (2019) becoming the longest-running number-one on the by a male solo artist at seven weeks. These figures demonstrate Canada's outsized contributions to commercial success and innovation despite a domestic market of 40 million people.

    Commercial and Cultural Impacts

    The Canadian music industry's commercial footprint has expanded significantly, with recorded music revenues reaching $909 million CAD in 2024, a 129% increase from $397 million CAD in 2014, driven primarily by streaming which accounted for 79% of . Operating revenues for record production and distribution hit $903.3 million in 2023, up 21.2% from 2021, while music publishing revenues grew to $491.9 million, a 13.3% rise over the same period. Live music contributed $10.92 billion to the economy in 2024 through direct operations, , and related spending. ranked as the eighth-largest global music market in 2023. Individual artists have propelled these figures through international sales and chart dominance. Drake holds the record for most number-one singles by a Canadian with 13, followed by with eight and with seven. secured four such hits, alongside massive album sales exceeding 200 million units worldwide for her catalog. Canadian performers earned nearly $460 million CAD in royalties alone in 2024, reflecting robust global streaming consumption. Culturally, Canadian music has exerted influence via exportable genres like Toronto's hip-hop scene, characterized by melodic flows and multicultural lyricism shaped by immigrant communities, as exemplified by Drake and the Weeknd's integration into mainstream pop and R&B. This has led to Canadian tracks achieving over 3.8 billion first-time discoveries on platforms like in 2023, fostering a perception of Canada as a hip-hop and pop powerhouse despite its population of 40 million. Earlier exports like Shania Twain's country-pop fusion, with over 100 million albums sold globally by 1997, demonstrated commercial viability of blending North American styles, influencing hybrid genres. Domestically, successes reinforce national pride, though global appeal often stems from alignment with U.S. trends rather than distinct innovations.

    Critiques of Talent and Innovation

    Critics of the Canadian music industry have argued that government subsidies and content regulations foster a culture of mediocrity rather than genuine talent development, as often supports projects that prioritize compliance over artistic risk-taking. In , Jordan Valeriote, head of Unfamiliar , publicly criticized the grant system for enabling "well-funded mediocrity," citing bands like Metric and as examples of acts propped up by public money despite lacking competitive edge in open markets. Similarly, in 2013, music blogger Paul Lawton described much of Canada's indie-rock scene as mediocre, asserting that an influx of subsidized acts dilutes quality and discourages by rewarding safe, sounds tailored to criteria rather than . A recurring critique posits that Canadian music often lacks originality, functioning as a derivative extension of American styles due to cultural proximity and market incentives to emulate U.S. trends for export success. Analysts have noted Canada's failure to originate globally influential genres, attributing this to historical patterns of migration and assimilation that suppress distinctive national sounds in favor of imitating dominant Anglo-American forms like rock, pop, and hip-hop. High-profile successes such as Drake and , while commercially dominant, have faced accusations of prioritizing Americanized production formulas—such as trap beats and R&B hooks—over uniquely Canadian , reflecting a broader industry tendency to prioritize crossover appeal in the U.S. market. Canadian content (CanCon) regulations, intended to promote domestic music, have been faulted for stifling by mandating quotas that insulate artists from competitive pressures, potentially reducing incentives for groundbreaking work. In a 2023 analysis, state funding was linked to formulaic output, where grants sustain acts that might fail in unsubsidized environments, leading to less compared to market-driven U.S. scenes. This perspective, often voiced by free-market advocates, contrasts with industry defenses of subsidies but aligns with observations of brain drain, where innovative talents relocate southward for greater creative freedom and commercial viability absent policy crutches. Empirical data underscores the point: despite subsidies exceeding hundreds of millions annually via programs like the Canada Music Fund, 's share of global music —as measured by creation or patent-like stylistic breakthroughs—remains negligible relative to its and funding levels.

    Controversies

    Cultural Appropriation and Authenticity

    In Canadian music, debates over cultural appropriation have prominently featured tensions within and surrounding Indigenous traditions, particularly regarding the use of sacred or regionally specific practices by artists outside their originating communities. A notable controversy erupted in 2019 at the Indigenous Music Awards when performers, including and , boycotted the event over the nomination of singer Connie LeGrande for a category involving her use of (Inuit throat singing), which critics argued constituted improper appropriation of an -specific tradition without requisite cultural permission or lineage. This intra-Indigenous dispute highlighted how anti-appropriation rhetoric, often promoted by cultural funding bodies emphasizing identity-based authenticity, can constrain artistic exchange even among diverse Indigenous groups, potentially prioritizing tribal gatekeeping over broader creative fusion. Historical precedents underscore systemic appropriations of Indigenous musical elements by non-Indigenous creators, including the collection and adaptation of songs during ethnographic expeditions and their incorporation into Western classical compositions without consent or compensation. For instance, in the early , anthropologists and composers documented and repurposed Indigenous chants and melodies, often stripping them of ritual context, a practice exacerbated by residential school policies that suppressed and "incarcerated" Indigenous songs through bans on their . Such actions contributed to a legacy where Indigenous musical repatriation efforts, like those repatriating recordings from archives, remain ongoing as of 2022. Authenticity concerns extend beyond appropriation to critiques of the Canadian music industry's structural incentives, where (CanCon) regulations—mandating at least 35% Canadian programming on radio since 1970—have been accused of fostering inauthentic output by prioritizing formulaic compliance over organic . Critics argue that CanCon's point , which awards points for Canadian , composition, , or production, incentivizes derivative imitations of American genres rather than cultivating distinct Canadian idioms, leading to a perceived lack of genuine cultural depth despite commercial boosts like those for bands in the . This manufactured "Canadianness" has fueled purity spirals, as seen in 2015 backlash against the band for its name evoking sensitivities, illustrating how intersects with artistic naming and expression in a manner that some view as stifling rather than protective. These debates reflect broader causal dynamics: geographic and cultural proximity to the drives stylistic borrowing, while policy interventions aim to assert national distinctiveness but risk commodifying authenticity as a checkbox metric, detached from empirical measures of or listener resonance. Empirical data from industry analyses show CanCon correlating with increased domestic but not necessarily superior artistic output, as Canadian acts often succeed internationally by emulating global trends rather than insular traditions.

    Policy Interventions and Free-Market Effects

    (CanCon) regulations, mandated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) since January 18, 1971, require commercial radio stations to devote at least 35% of selections to Canadian-produced content, defined via the MAPL system where at least two of four elements—music composition, artist, performance, or lyrics—must originate from Canadians. These quotas, initially set at 25% and gradually increased, aimed to counter U.S. and British dominance in airplay and foster a domestic recording industry that previously lacked scale. Government funding mechanisms, such as grants through the and organizations like FACTOR, have supplemented these rules by allocating hundreds of millions annually—$608 million from Heritage alone in 2013-2014—to support production, distribution, and artist development. Proponents, including industry stakeholders, attribute industry growth to these interventions, citing expanded airplay that enabled breakthroughs for artists in the 1970s and beyond. Critics contend that such policies distort free-market dynamics by artificially inflating for domestic content, shielding Canadian artists from genuine and incentivizing lower-quality output to meet quotas rather than excel globally. Free-market analyses argue that subsidies and mandates divert resources from higher-productivity sectors, impose hidden costs on consumers through reduced choice and elevated prices, and foster dependency, as evidenced by broadcasters' in mandated Canadian programming expenditures in that may have misallocated funds from more efficient uses. The MAPL criteria, for instance, disqualified hits like ' collaborations in the due to non-Canadian co-production, illustrating how rigid rules prioritize bureaucratic over artistic merit and international viability. Empirical evidence of unsubsidized Canadian successes abroad, such as television exports to the U.S., undermines claims of inherent without intervention, suggesting policies protect inefficiency rather than nurture talent. In the streaming era, extending CanCon-like discoverability mandates to platforms risks further market interference, potentially limiting algorithms' ability to match global audiences and revenues, as seen in fears from digital creators over reduced earnings under expansions like Bill C-11. While industry reports highlight subsidies' role in generating jobs and GDP contributions—such as $10.92 billion from live music—free-market critiques emphasize that these figures often overlook opportunity costs and fail to demonstrate superior outcomes compared to unregulated peers like the U.K. or . Ultimately, interventions may perpetuate complacency by guaranteeing exposure, contrasting with free-market pressures that drive innovation through consumer-driven selection, though empirical data on long-term quality impacts remains contested due to challenges in isolating causal effects.

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