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Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than one god.[1][2][3] According to Oxford Reference, it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion, such as Chinese folk religions, is really so, or whether the apparent different objects of worship are to be thought of as manifestations of a singular divinity.[1] Polytheistic belief is usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a singular god who is, in most cases, transcendent.

In religions that accept polytheism, the different gods and goddesses may be representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles; they can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator deity or transcendental absolute principle (monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature (panentheistic and pantheistic theologies).[4] Polytheists do not always worship all the gods equally; they can be in monolatrists or kathenotheists, specializing in the worship of one particular deity only or at certain times (respectively)

The recognition of the existence of multiple gods and goddesses does not necessarily equate to the worship of all the deities of one or more pantheons, as the believer can either worship them as a whole, or concentrate only on a specific group of deities, determined by various conditions such as the believer's occupation, tastes, personal experience, family tradition, etc. It is also possible to worship a single deity, considered supreme, without ruling out the existence of other gods. This religious position has been called henotheism, but some prefer to call it monolatry. Although the term "henotheism" is controversial, it is recognized by scholars that the worship of a single god accompanied by belief in other deities maintains the principle of polytheism.[5]

Polytheism was the typical form of religion before the development and spread of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which enforce monotheism. However, there are still some dualistic[relevant?] aspects, such as Satan[clarification needed], and polytheistic aspects, such as saints.[clarification needed] Saint Brigid is in fact Brigit, the main goddess of Celtic Ireland.[citation needed] It is well documented[by whom?] throughout history, from prehistory and the earliest records of ancient Egyptian religion and ancient Mesopotamian religion to the religions prevalent during classical antiquity, such as ancient Greek religion and ancient Roman religion, and in ethnic religions such as Germanic, Slavic, and Baltic paganism and Native American religions. Notable polytheistic religions practiced today include Taoism, Shenism or Chinese folk religion, Shinto, Santería, most Traditional African religions,[6] and various neopagan faiths such as Wicca and Hellenism.

Hinduism, while popularly held as polytheistic by many scholars, cannot be exclusively categorised as such as some Hindus consider themselves to be pantheists, panentheists, henotheist, polymorphist, monotheists or monist. Hinduism does not have a single book, Hinduism is an umbrella term for a collection of ideologies. They are compatible with Hindu texts, since there exists no consensus of standardisation in the faith. Vedanta, the most dominant school of Hinduism, offers a combination of pantheism/panentheism and polytheism, holding that Brahman is the sole ultimate reality of the universe, yet unity with it can be reached by worshipping the innumerable deities that represent the Supreme Absolute Truth. Hindus who practice Bhakti ultimately believe in one god, who is known variously as Paramatman, Parabrahman, Bhagavan, Ishvara, and so on, that transcends all categories (e.g. both of form and formless), however the common people who remain unaware of these concepts worship their deities as ultimate god. Different regions can have their own local deities whose worship is restricted to that region. Brahman is personification of the concept of moksha and the different gods are paths to moksha or realising the Brahman.

Terminology

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The term comes from the Greek πολύ poly ("many") and θεός theos ("god") and was coined by the Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria to argue with the Greeks. When Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, non-Christians were called Gentiles (a term originally used by Jews to refer to non-Jews) or pagans (locals) or by the clearly pejorative term idolaters (worshippers of "false" gods). In modern times, the term polytheism was first revived in French by Jean Bodin in 1580, followed by Samuel Purchas's usage in English in 1614.[7]

Soft versus hard

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See also: Interpretatio graeca

A major division in modern polytheistic practices is between so-called soft polytheism and hard polytheism.[8][9]

"Soft" polytheism is the belief that different gods may either be psychological archetypes, personifications of natural forces, or as being one essential god interpreted through the lenses of different cultures (e.g. Odin, Zeus, and Indra all being the same god as interpreted by Germanic, Greek, and Indic peoples respectively) – known as omnitheism.[10] In this way, gods may be interchangeable for one another across cultures.[9]

"Hard" polytheism is the belief that gods are distinct, separate, real divine beings, rather than psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces. Hard polytheists reject the idea that "all gods are one essential god" and may also reject the existence of gods outside their own pantheon altogether.[9]

Gods and divinity

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The deities of polytheism are often portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories, in many ways similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions. Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from the animist beliefs prevalent in most folk religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors, demons, wights, and others. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped.

Types of deities

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Further information: List of deities

Types of deities often found in polytheism may include:

Religion and mythology

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Main article: Religion and mythology

In the Classical era, 4th century CE Neoplatonist Sallustius categorized mythology into five types:[11]

  1. Theological: myths that contemplate the essence of the gods, such as Cronus swallowing his children, which Sallustius regarded as expressing in allegory the essence of divinity
  2. Physical: expressing the activities of gods in the world
  3. Psychological: myths as allegories of the activities of the soul itself or the soul's acts of thought
  4. Material: regarding material objects as gods, for example: to call the earth Gaia, the ocean Okeanos, or heat Typhon
  5. Mixed

The beliefs of many historical polytheistic religions are commonly referred to as "mythology",[12][unreliable source?] though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished[according to whom?] from their worship or religious practice. For instance, deities portrayed in conflict in mythology were often nonetheless worshipped side by side, illustrating the distinction within the religion between belief and practice.[citation needed] Scholars such as Jaan Puhvel, J. P. Mallory, and Douglas Q. Adams have reconstructed aspects of the ancient Proto-Indo-European religion from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples are thought to derive, which is believed to have been an essentially naturalist numenistic religion.[citation needed] An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of *dyēus, which is attested in several religious systems of Indo-European-speaking peoples.

Ancient and historical religions

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Egyptian gods in the Carnegie Museum of Natural History

Well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods, the Egyptian gods, the pantheon attested in classical antiquity (in ancient Greek and Roman religion), the Norse Æsir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, and the Aztec gods.

In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or other places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of a culture's pantheon to that of the invaders, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the Æsir–Vanir war in the Norse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being revered in two places under different names, as seen with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the cultural transmission of elements of an extraneous religion, as with the ancient Egyptian deity Osiris, who was later worshipped in ancient Greece.

Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were incorruptible but material, blissful beings who inhabited the empty spaces between worlds and did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep.

Ancient Greece

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Main article: Religion in ancient Greece
Procession of the Twelve Olympians

The classical scheme in Ancient Greece of the Twelve Olympians (the Canonical Twelve of art and poetry) were:[13][14] Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Ares, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Hestia. Though it is suggested that Hestia stepped down when Dionysus was invited to Mount Olympus, this is a matter of controversy. Robert Graves' The Greek Myths cites two sources[15][16] that obviously do not suggest Hestia surrendered her seat, though he suggests she did. Hades[17] was often excluded because he dwelt in the underworld. All of the gods had a power. There was, however, a great deal of fluidity as to who was counted among their number in antiquity.[18] Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature.

Hellenic Polytheism extended beyond mainland Greece, to the islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor, to Magna Graecia (Sicily and southern Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such as Massalia (Marseille). Greek religion tempered Etruscan cult and belief to form much of the later Roman religion. During the Hellenistic Era, philosophical schools like Epicureanism developed distinct theologies.[19] Hellenism is, in practice, primarily centered around polytheistic and animistic worship.

Folk religions

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Main article: Folk religion
Further information: Saint, Angel, Folk Catholicism, and Shamanism
Bulul statues serve as avatars of rice deities in the Anitist beliefs of the Ifugao in the Philippines.

The majority of so-called "folk religions" in the world today (distinguished from traditional ethnic religions) are found in the Asia-Pacific region.[20] This fact conforms to the trend of the majority of polytheist religions being found outside the western world.[21]

Folk religions are often closely tied to animism. Animistic beliefs are found in historical and modern cultures. Folk beliefs are often labeled superstitions when they are present in monotheistic societies.[22] Folk religions often do not have organized authorities, also known as priesthoods, or any formal sacred texts.[23] They often coincide with other religions as well. Abrahamic monotheistic religions, which dominate the western world, typically do not approve of practicing parts of multiple religions, but folk religions often overlap with others.[22] Followers of polytheistic religions do not often problematize following practices and beliefs from multiple religions.

Modern religions

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Further information: Theology, Pantheon (gods), Euhemerism, Interpretatio graeca, Demigod, and Apotheosis

Buddhism

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Further information: God in Buddhism, Deva (Buddhism), and Nontheism § Buddhism

Depending on the tradition practiced, Buddhism may be seen as polytheistic as it at least acknowledges the existence of multiple gods. The Buddha is a leader figure but is not meant to be worshipped as a god. Devas, a Sanskrit word for gods, are also not meant to be worshipped. They are not immortal and have limited powers. A deva may have been human with positive karma in previous lives and was reborn as a deva.[24] A common Buddhist practice is tantra: the use of rituals to achieve enlightenment. Tantra focuses on seeing oneself as a deity and the use of deities as symbols rather than supernatural agents.[25] Buddhism is most closely aligned with polytheism when it is linked with other religions, often folk religions. For example, the Japanese Shinto religion, in which deities called kami are worshipped, is sometimes syncretized with Buddhism.[26]

Christianity

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See also: God in Christianity and Trinity

Although Christianity is usually described as monotheistic,[27][28] it is sometimes claimed that the doctrine of the Trinity, upheld by most Christian traditions since late antiquity, precludes pure monotheism.[29] The doctrine posits that God consists of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Because the deity is three distinct persons, some believe Christianity should be considered a form of tritheism, a form of polytheism.[30][31] Christianity contends that "one God exists in Three Persons and One Substance,"[32] but that the deity cannot be a unitary person with an individual identity. Christianity inherited the idea of "one God" from Judaism and maintains that its monotheistic doctrine is central to the faith.

It is sometimes claimed that Christianity is not truly monotheistic because of its idea of the Trinity

Jordan Paper, a Western scholar and self-described polytheist, considers polytheism the normal state of human culture. He argues that "Even the Catholic Church shows polytheistic aspects with the 'veneration' of the saints." On the other hand, he asserts, monotheistic missionaries and scholars were eager to see a proto-monotheism or at least henotheism in polytheistic religions, for example, when taking from the Chinese pair of Sky and Earth only one part and calling it the King of Heaven, as Matteo Ricci did.[33] In 1508, a London Lollard named William Pottier was accused of believing in six gods.[34]

Mormonism

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Further information: God in Mormonism

Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, believed in "the plurality of Gods", saying, "I have always declared God to be a distinct personage, Jesus Christ a separate and distinct personage from God the Father, and that the Holy Ghost was a distinct personage and a Spirit: and these three constitute three distinct personages and three Gods."[35] Mormonism, which emerged from Protestantism,[36] teaches exaltation, which is defined as the hypothesis that people can, in all ways, become like God in the afterlife.[37] Mormonism also affirms the existence of a Heavenly Mother,[38] and the prevailing view among Mormons is that God the Father was once a man who lived on a planet with his own higher God, and became perfect after following this higher God.[39][40] Some critics of Mormonism argue that statements in the Book of Mormon describe a trinitarian conception of God (e.g. 2 Nephi 31:21; Alma 11:44), but were superseded by later revelations.[41] Due to teachings within Mormon cosmology, some theologians claim that it allows for an infinite number of gods.[42][43][44][45][46][47]

Mormon theology posits that scriptural statements on the unity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost represent a unity of purpose, not substance.[48] They believe that the early Christian Church did not characterize divinity in terms of an immaterial, formless, shared substance until post-apostolic theologians began to incorporate Greek metaphysical philosophies (such as Neoplatonism) into Christian doctrine.[49][50] Mormons believe that the truth about God's nature was restored through modern-day revelation, which reinstated the original Judeo-Christian concept of a natural, corporeal, immortal God,[51] who is the literal father of the spirits of humans.[52] It is to this personage alone that Mormons pray, as he is and always will be their Heavenly Father, the supreme "God of gods" (Deuteronomy 10:17). In the sense that Mormons worship only God the Father, they consider themselves monotheists. Nevertheless, Mormons adhere to Jesus's teaching that those who receive God's Word can obtain the title of "gods" (John 10:33–36) because, as literal children of God, they can take upon themselves his divine attributes. Mormons teach that "The glory of God is intelligence" (Doctrine and Covenants 93:36), and that it is by sharing the Father's perfect comprehension of all things that both Jesus and the Holy Spirit are also divine.[53]

Hinduism

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Further information: Hindu views on monotheism

Hinduism is neither a monolithic religion nor an organized religion: a wide variety of religious traditions and practices are grouped under this umbrella term, and some modern scholars have questioned the legitimacy of unifying them artificially and suggest that one should speak of "Hinduisms" in the plural.[54] Theistic Hinduism encompasses both monotheistic and polytheistic tendencies and variations on or mixes of both structures.

Hindus venerate deities in the form of the pratima, or idol. The puja (worship) of the pratima is like a way to communicate with the formless, abstract divinity (Brahman in Hinduism) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation. However, some sects have advocated that there is no need to give a shape to God and that it is omnipresent and beyond what humans can see or feel tangibly. These gods were not worshipped without a proper consecration ritual.[55] It was believed that after the consecration ritual, the idol no longer remained as stone or metal and attained a temporary or permanent state of divinity.

Some Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence.[citation needed] This divine essence is usually referred to as Brahman or Atman, but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as Vedanta.

Among lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism. These practices focus worship on one or more personal deities while granting the existence of others.

Academically speaking, the ancient Vedic scriptures, upon which Hinduism is derived, describe four authorized disciplic lines of teaching coming down over thousands of years. (Padma Purana). Four propound that the Absolute Truth is Fully Personal, as in Judeo-Christian theology. They say that the Primal Original God is Personal, both transcendent and immanent throughout creation. He can be and is often approached through worship of Prathimas, called "Archa-Vigraha", described in the Vedas as identical to his various dynamic, spiritual Forms. This is the Vaisnava theology.

The fifth disciplic line of Vedic spirituality, founded by Adi Shankaracharya, promotes the concept that the Absolute is Brahman, without clear differentiations, will, thought, or intelligence.

In the Smarta denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of Advaita expounded by Shankara allows veneration of numerous deities [citation needed] with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman. Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman, Lakshmi, Kali, Parvati, Durga, Rama, Krishna but they are essentially different forms of the same "Being".[citation needed] However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that the same impersonal, divine power united all individuals in the form of the Atman.

Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism. Ram Swarup, for example, points to the Vedas as being specifically polytheistic,[56] and states that, "only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness."[57]

Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe):

There was neither non-existence nor existence then;

Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond;

What stirred? Where? In whose protection?

There was neither death nor immortality then;

No distinguishing sign of night nor of day;

That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse;

Other than that there was nothing beyond.

Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden;

Without distinctive marks, this all was water;

That which, becoming, by the void was covered;

That One by force of heat came into being;

Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it?

Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?

Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.

Who then knows whence it has arisen?

Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute;

Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not;

The Supreme Brahman of the world, all pervasive and all knowing

He indeed knows, if not, no one knows

-Rig Veda 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer / Christian)

Some Hindus construe this notion of polytheism in the sense of polymorphism—one God with many forms or names. The Rig Veda, the primary Hindu scripture, elucidates this as follows:

They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan. Book I, Hymn 164, Verse 46 Rigveda

Judaism and Samaritanism

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Main articles: Yahwism § Transition to Judaism and Samaritanism, Monolatry § In ancient Israel, and Henotheism § Canaanite religion and Yahwism

Zoroastrianism

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See also: Criticism of Zoroastrianism § Polytheism

Ahura Mazda is the supreme god, but Zoroastrianism does not deny other deities. Ahura Mazda has yazatas ("good agents"), some of which include Anahita, Sraosha, Mithra, Rashnu, and Tishtrya. Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of Pre-Islamic era worshiped all these figures, especially Mithra and Anahita.[58]

Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos".[59] Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism".[60]

Tengrism

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See also: Turkic mythology, Mongol mythology, and Mongolian shamanism

The nature of Tengrism remains debatable. According to many scholars, Tengrism was originally polytheistic, but a monotheistic branch with the sky god Kök-Tengri as the supreme being evolved as a dynastical legitimation. It is at least agreed that Tengrism formed from the diverse folk religions of the local people and may have had diverse branches.[61][62][63]

It is suggested that Tengrism was a monotheistic religion only at the imperial level in aristocratic circles,[64][65][66] and, perhaps, only by the 12th–13th centuries (a late form of development of ancient animistic shamanism in the era of the Mongol empire).[67]

According to Jean-Paul Roux, the monotheistic concept evolved from a polytheistic system and was not the original form of Tengrism. The monotheistic concept helped to legitimate the rule of the dynasty: "As there is only one God in Heaven, there can only be one ruler on the earth ...".[68]

Others point out that Tengri itself was never an Absolute, but only one of many gods of the upper world, the sky deity, of polytheistic shamanism, later known as Tengrism.[69]

The term also describes several contemporary Turko-Mongolic native religious movements and teachings. All modern adherents of "political" Tengrism are monotheists.[70]

Modern paganism

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Modern paganism, also known as neopaganism and contemporary paganism,[71] is a group of contemporary religious movements influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe.[72][73] Although they have commonalities, contemporary pagan religious movements are diverse, and no single set of beliefs, practices, or texts are shared by them all.[74]

Founder of Wicca Gerald Gardner helped to revive ancient polytheism.[75][76] English occultist Dion Fortune was a major populiser of soft polytheism. In her novel The Sea Priestess, she wrote, "All gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess, and there is one initiator."[77]

Reconstructionism

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Main article: Polytheistic reconstructionism

Reconstructionist polytheists apply scholarly disciplines such as history, archaeology, and language study to revive ancient, traditional religions that have been fragmented, damaged, or even destroyed, such as Norse paganism, Roman and Celtic. A reconstructionist endeavors to revive and reconstruct an authentic practice based on the ancestors' ways but workable in contemporary life. These polytheists sharply differ from neopagans in that they consider their religion not only as inspired by historical religions but, in many cases, as a continuation or revival of those religions.[78][self-published source?]

Wicca

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Main article: Wicca

Wicca is a duotheistic faith created by Gerald Gardner that allows for polytheism.[79][80][81] Wiccans specifically worship the Lord and Lady of the Isles (their names are oathbound).[80][81][82][83] It is an orthopraxic mystery religion that requires initiation to the priesthood to consider oneself Wiccan.[80][81][84] Wicca emphasizes duality and the cycle of nature.[80][81][85]

Serer

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Main articles: Serer religion, Timeline of Serer history, and States headed by ancient Serer Lamanes

In Africa, polytheism in Serer religion dates to the Neolithic Era or possibly earlier, when the ancient ancestors of the Serer people represented their Pangool on the Tassili n'Ajjer.[86] [dubious – discuss] The supreme creator deity in the Serer religion is Roog. However, there are many deities[87] and Pangool (singular: Fangool, the interceders with the divine) in the Serer religion.[86] Each has its own purpose and serves as Roog's agent on Earth.[87] Amongst the Cangin speakers, a sub-group of the Serers, Roog is known as Koox.[88]

Use as a term of abuse

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The term "polytheist" is sometimes used by Sunni Muslim extremist groups such as Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) as a derogatory reference to Shiite Muslims, whom they view as having "strayed from Islam's monotheistic creed because of the reverence they show for historical figures, like Imam Ali".[89]

Professor Paul Vitz, an opponent of Selfism [sic], viewed the United States as a "most polytheistic nation".[90]

The term has occasionally been used by Protestant thinkers, such as Samuel Purchas, as an anti-papist condemnation of worship of "Saints, Images, and the Host".[91]

Polydeism

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Deism
Origins
Movements
Notable figures
False equivalencies
Opposition

Polydeism (from the Greek πολύ poly ("many") and Latin deus meaning god) is a portmanteau referencing a polytheistic form of deism, encompassing the belief that the universe was the collective creation of multiple gods, each of whom created a piece of the universe or multiverse and then ceased to intervene in its evolution. This concept addresses an apparent contradiction in deism, that a monotheistic God created the universe, but now expresses no apparent interest in it, by supposing that if the universe is the construct of many gods, none of them would have an interest in the universe as a whole.

Creighton University Philosophy professor William O. Stephens,[92] who has taught this concept, suggests that C. D. Broad projected this concept[93] in Broad's 1925 article, "The Validity of Belief in a Personal God".[94] Broad noted that the arguments for the existence of God only tend to prove that "a designing mind had existed in the past, not that it does exist now. It is quite compatible with this argument that God should have died long ago, or that he should have turned his attention to other parts of the Universe", and notes in the same breath that "there is nothing in the facts to suggest that there is only one such being".[95] Stephens contends that Broad, in turn, derived the concept from David Hume. Stephens states:

David Hume's criticisms of the argument from design include the argument that, for all we know, a committee of very powerful, but not omnipotent, divine beings could have collaborated in creating the world, but then afterwards left it alone or even ceased to exist. This would be polydeism.

This use of the term appears to originate at least as early as Robert M. Bowman Jr.'s 1997 essay, Apologetics from Genesis to Revelation.[96] Bowman wrote:

Materialism (illustrated by the Epicureans), represented today by atheism, skepticism, and deism. The materialist may acknowledge superior beings, but they do not believe in a Supreme Being. Epicureanism was founded about 300 BC by Epicurus. Their world view might be called "polydeism:" there are many gods, but they are merely superhuman beings; they are remote, uninvolved in the world, posing no threat and offering no hope to human beings. Epicureans regarded traditional religion and idolatry as harmless enough as long as the gods were not feared or expected to do or say anything.

Sociologist Susan Starr Sered used the term in her 1994 book, Priestess, Mother, Sacred Sister: Religions Dominated by Women, which includes a chapter titled, "No Father in Heaven: Androgyny and Polydeism". She writes that she has "chosen to gloss on 'polydeism' a range of beliefs in more than one supernatural entity".[97] Sered used this term in a way that would encompass polytheism, rather than exclude much of it, as she intended to capture both polytheistic systems and nontheistic systems that assert the influence of "spirits or ancestors".[97] This use of the term, however, does not accord with the historical misuse of deism as a concept to describe an absent creator god.

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Polytheism

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Polytheism is the belief in and worship of multiple deities, derived from the Greek words poly ("many") and theoi ("gods"). These deities are typically anthropomorphic or nature-associated entities, each governing specific domains such as weather, war, fertility, or craftsmanship, and often depicted as interacting through familial relations, alliances, or conflicts within a structured pantheon. Polytheistic systems emphasize ritual offerings, myths explaining cosmic order, and priestly mediation to appease divine wills, reflecting observed causal complexities in natural and human phenomena rather than a singular unifying principle. Historically, polytheism dominated ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Norse, and various indigenous traditions worldwide, where it provided explanatory frameworks for seasonal cycles, societal hierarchies, and unpredictable events without requiring empirical falsification of divine agency. Archaeological evidence, such as temple complexes and votive inscriptions, attests to its pervasive role in and cultural continuity, often integrating local gods into expansive imperial pantheons. The decline of dominant polytheistic practices in Europe and the correlates with the military and doctrinal expansions of monotheistic from the 1st millennium CE onward, though polytheism endures in Hinduism's diverse deva worship and Shinto's reverence, adapting to philosophical or monistic interpretations in some contexts. In contemporary times, polytheism has experienced revival through neopagan and reconstructionist movements, which reconstruct ancient rites using historical texts and folklore, emphasizing experiential pluralism over dogmatic exclusivity. These modern iterations, including Ásatrú and Hellenic polytheism, prioritize ecological attunement and personal sovereignty, contrasting with monotheism's frequent historical associations with centralized authority and intolerance toward rival cults. While lacking unified doctrine, polytheism's defining characteristic remains its accommodation of divine multiplicity, aligning with empirical observations of decentralized causal influences in complex systems, though it faces critiques for diluting explanatory parsimony compared to monotheistic or atheistic paradigms.

Definition and Core Concepts

Etymology and Terminology

The term polytheism derives from the roots polús (πολύς, meaning "many") and theós (θεός, meaning "god"), with the -ismós indicating a or belief system, thus denoting the belief in or worship of multiple deities. This etymological formation reflects a literal emphasis on plurality in divine entities, contrasting with (from monos, "one," + theós), which emerged as a parallel term in the to describe exclusive devotion to a single god. The modern English word polytheism entered usage in the 1610s, borrowed from French polythéisme, which itself originated in the late 16th century, with early attestation in Jean Bodin's Colloquium heptaplomeres (written 1588, published 1593), a dialogue exploring religious tolerance amid diverse beliefs. Prior to this, Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BCE–c. 50 CE) used the Greek polytheía to critique the veneration of numerous gods among pagans, providing a conceptual antecedent though not the exact modern neologism. In academic terminology, polytheism serves as a descriptive category for religious traditions featuring multiple gods—often anthropomorphic, hierarchical, or functionally specialized—applied retrospectively to ancient systems like those of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, where no indigenous equivalent term existed; it supplanted earlier Christian polemics such as "idolatry" or "heathenism" with a more neutral, typological framework during the Enlightenment.

Distinction from Monotheism, Henotheism, and Animism

Polytheism is characterized by the belief in and veneration of multiple independent deities, each possessing distinct attributes, domains of influence, and mythological narratives, as opposed to 's assertion of a singular, transcendent who alone possesses ultimate power and excludes the ontological reality of other divine beings. systems, exemplified in traditions like post-Exilic period (after 539 BCE), from its inception around 30 CE, and from 610 CE onward, emphasize 's absolute oneness ( in Islamic theology) and omnipotence, viewing polytheistic gods as illusory or subordinate creations rather than coequal entities. Henotheism, a concept coined by philologist in 1860, denotes the prioritization of one deity for worship as supreme or primary while conceding the existence—and potentially the power—of other gods, differing from polytheism's more egalitarian or multifaceted engagement with a pantheon where multiple deities receive devotion without a singular hierarchical focus. In henotheistic frameworks, such as early Vedic religion (circa 1500–500 BCE) where or might be elevated contextually, the chosen god's supremacy is practical or tribal rather than absolute, whereas polytheistic systems like classical Greek religion (5th–4th centuries BCE) distribute rituals and myths across gods like , , and Apollo as autonomous agents interacting in a divine assembly. Scholarly debate persists on whether henotheism constitutes a transitional stage or a distinct subtype, with some analyses of ancient Near Eastern texts suggesting it reflects cultural borrowing rather than doctrinal toward . Unlike animism, which posits inherent spiritual agency or souls (anima) within natural elements, animals, and objects—often impersonal and localized forces without anthropomorphic form or narrative complexity—polytheism structures divinity into personified gods with human-like wills, genealogies, and interventions in human affairs. Animistic practices, documented ethnographically among indigenous groups like Australian Aboriginals since European contact in the 18th century or African hunter-gatherers, emphasize reciprocal relations with ubiquitous spirits through shamanic mediation rather than temple-based cults or epic theogonies; polytheism, by contrast, develops formalized hierarchies and cosmogonies, as in Mesopotamian Enuma Elish (circa 18th–12th centuries BCE), where gods like Marduk emerge from primordial chaos to govern cosmic order. This distinction underscores polytheism's causal emphasis on divine personalities driving events, versus animism's diffuse, immanent vitalism lacking centralized deity worship.

Soft and Hard Polytheism

Hard polytheism denotes the conviction that deities constitute discrete, ontologically independent beings, each endowed with unique personalities, wills, and capacities for independent action. This perspective maintains that gods operate as separate causal agents, capable of interpersonal dynamics such as alliances, rivalries, and conflicts, as evidenced in ancient mythological corpora where deities exhibit autonomous behaviors. Adherents, often within reconstructionist traditions like Hellenism or Heathenry, reject subsuming divine plurality under a unifying essence, viewing such reductions as incompatible with historical ritual and narrative evidence of distinct cultic veneration. In contrast, soft polytheism conceptualizes gods as interconnected facets, archetypes, or projections of a singular divine principle, thereby emphasizing unity over separation. Proponents may interpret multiple deities as symbolic expressions of psychological states, natural forces, or emanations from one godhead, a view prevalent in certain eclectic modern pagan practices influenced by perennialist philosophies. This approach facilitates syncretism across pantheons but has drawn critique from hard polytheists for diluting empirical distinctions observed in ancient sources, such as exclusive oaths to specific gods or myths depicting irreconcilable divine agendas, potentially aligning it closer to henotheism or monism than strict polytheism. The soft-hard dichotomy originated in late 20th- and early 21st-century discussions among neopagans and polytheistic revivalists, serving to delineate fidelity to historical precedents against interpretive universalism. Empirical assessment favors hard polytheism as reflective of pre-modern polytheistic systems, where archaeological records of segregated temples and iconography underscore discrete divine identities, whereas soft variants lack attestation in primary ancient texts and may stem from monotheistic cultural overlays or Jungian psychologization. Both frameworks persist in contemporary spirituality, with hard polytheism underpinning efforts to reconstruct traditions like Roman or Slavic paganism through philological and ethnographic rigor.

Anthropological and Cognitive Origins

Evolutionary and Psychological Foundations

The cognitive foundations of polytheistic beliefs arise from evolved psychological mechanisms that promote the detection of intentional agency in the environment, particularly through the hyperactive agency detection device (HADD), which biases humans toward interpreting ambiguous stimuli—such as rustling foliage or sudden weather changes—as evidence of purposeful actors rather than . This likely conferred advantages in Pleistocene environments by minimizing the risk of overlooking predators or competitors, as false positives in agency attribution were evolutionarily cheaper than false negatives. In the of polytheism, HADD extends to natural phenomena, fostering intuitions of multiple localized agents responsible for discrete events like , storms, or , rather than a singular omnipotent force. Complementing HADD is the theory of mind (ToM), a cognitive capacity enabling attribution of mental states, desires, and intentions to others, which humans readily apply anthropomorphically to non-human entities, including imagined deities. Psychological experiments, such as those prompting participants to explain natural occurrences, consistently show preferences for intentional explanations over mechanistic ones, with polytheistic framings emerging naturally when multiple domains (e.g., agriculture vs. warfare) are considered. This modularity aligns with polytheism's structure of specialized gods, each embodying human-like traits but amplified, avoiding the cognitive load of reconciling a single deity's involvement in conflicting outcomes like prosperity and calamity. Neuroimaging studies further indicate activation of social cognition networks during religious reflection, underscoring how polytheistic pantheons mirror expanded human social groups. These mechanisms produce minimally counterintuitive concepts—agents that defy limited expectations (e.g., or in specific realms) while retaining intuitive cores—which enhance memorability and cultural transmission, as demonstrated in cross-cultural recall experiments where such ideas outperform purely intuitive or maximally bizarre ones. While can suppress polytheistic multiplicity toward , developmental psychology reveals that young children exhibit spontaneous polyagent intuitions before enculturation, suggesting a cognitive baseline favoring distributed divine agency over unified . Empirical challenges to purely by-product accounts, including evidence of adaptive social cohesion from shared rituals, indicate polytheism's psychological roots may also support group-level selection pressures in cooperative foraging societies.

Empirical Evidence from Prehistoric and Early Societies

Archaeological findings from the period, approximately 40,000 to 10,000 BCE, include therianthropic figurines such as the from Hohlenstein-Stadel cave in , dated to around 35,000 BCE, depicting a hybrid human-lion figure carved from , which suggests early conceptions of transformative beings beyond human or animal forms alone. Similar hybrid motifs appear in cave art, like the 44,000-year-old paintings in , , portraying shape-shifting humanoid figures with animal features engaged in hunting, interpreted as evidence of imagined plural entities influencing human affairs. These artifacts, found across Eurasian sites, indicate a widespread pattern of representing multiple distinct spirit-like or hybrid agents rather than a singular divine force, consistent with animistic frameworks where diverse natural and transformative powers were attributed agency. In the Neolithic era, around 10,000 to 4,500 BCE, sites like Göbekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey, constructed circa 9600 BCE, feature T-shaped pillars adorned with reliefs of varied animals—including foxes, snakes, boars, and birds—arranged in enclosures that imply ritual significance for multiple totemic or guardian entities rather than unified iconography. At Çatalhöyük in central Anatolia, occupied from about 7500 to 5700 BCE, excavations have uncovered over 2,000 figurines and wall murals depicting diverse motifs such as bulls, leopards, vultures, and human-animal composites, pointing to a repertoire of symbolic figures possibly linked to fertility, hunting, or ancestral spirits, without dominance by a single archetype. These material remains, including deliberate placements in domestic and communal spaces, support inferences of beliefs in plural supernatural influences tied to ecological and social cycles, marking a shift toward more structured expressions of multiplicity amid sedentism and agriculture. Burial practices from these periods further corroborate pluralism, as evidenced by grave goods varying by site—such as red ochre, animal bones, and tools in Paleolithic interments like Sungir, (circa 30,000 BCE), and diverse offerings in Neolithic tombs—suggesting appeals to multiple protective or agents rather than a monolithic . However, direct attribution to organized polytheism remains interpretive, as artifacts lack textual corroboration and could reflect shamanic or animistic precedents where spirits inhabited phenomena without anthropomorphic hierarchies. This evidentiary base underscores a gradual materialization of pluralistic supernaturalism preceding literate pantheons in Bronze Age societies.

Beliefs About Deities and the Divine

Nature and Attributes of Gods

In polytheistic belief systems, gods are conceptualized as a plurality of entities, each wielding authority over delimited domains of the natural world, human endeavors, or cosmic functions, rather than possessing unlimited power. This specialization reflects a division of influence, where no single commands absolute control, enabling interactions, alliances, and conflicts among them. For instance, in ancient Mesopotamian and Greek traditions, gods like deities or lords exert power within their spheres but face constraints from peers or fate. Deities typically exhibit anthropomorphic traits, appearing in human-like forms with gendered bodies, amplified physical prowess, and emotional capacities such as , , and . These attributes extend to behaviors mirroring human societies, including familial bonds, marriages, and deceptions, as depicted in epic narratives from Sumerian texts to Homeric poetry. Yet, gods surpass mortals in and scale, often portrayed as larger or stronger, while remaining vulnerable to , , or overthrow within mythic cycles. Unlike monotheistic ideals of perfect benevolence and omniscience, polytheistic gods display moral ambiguities, engaging in acts of vengeance, infidelity, or caprice without universal ethical oversight. This imperfection aligns with their role as potent but fallible agents of order and chaos, demanding propitiation through rituals to secure favor rather than inherent moral alignment. Empirical evidence from cuneiform tablets and temple inscriptions confirms these portrayals, where deities' flaws underscore human-like realism over abstract perfection. In some systems, such as ancient Egyptian, gods blend human and animal features, but core anthropomorphism persists in their relational dynamics and interventions.

Pantheons, Hierarchies, and Interactions Among Deities

In polytheistic religions, a pantheon constitutes the collective body of deities worshipped within a given cultural tradition, often comprising dozens or hundreds of gods differentiated by function, origin, and locale. These assemblies reflect societal structures, with deities embodying forces of nature, cosmic order, or human endeavors, as evidenced in ancient textual records and archaeological inscriptions across Indo-European and Near Eastern civilizations. Pantheons frequently organize into hierarchies mirroring patriarchal or familial human institutions, featuring a supreme deity who asserts dominance through conquest or . In , Zeus leads the Olympian pantheon after overthrowing the Titans, establishing a generational succession that parallels monarchical lineages, with subordinate gods like and allocated realms under his oversight. Similarly, Egyptian theology positioned Amun-Ra at the apex during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), integrating local gods into a centralized structure governed by principles of (cosmic balance), where deities' roles were delineated by authority and ritual precedence. Norse traditions depict as the Allfather presiding over the Aesir, a warrior hierarchy forged from inter-pantheon conflict with the agrarian , underscoring functional divisions in divine society. Proposed reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European pantheons suggest a tripartite schema—priestly, martial, and productive gods—stratified around a figure, influencing descendant systems like those in Vedic and Hittite lore. Interactions among deities, as narrated in myths, exhibit anthropomorphic dynamics including kinship, alliances, betrayals, and conflicts that explain cosmological events or moral precedents. Familial ties predominate, with gods engaging in marriages, adulteries, and filicides; for example, in Egyptian lore, Set's murder of (c. 2400 BCE ) precipitated Horus's retaliatory war, resolving into dual kingship symbolizing order's restoration. Greek epics, such as Homer's (c. 8th century BCE), portray gods intervening in affairs through partisan favoritism—Athena aiding Greeks, Apollo supporting Trojans—while mediates to avert total annihilation, illustrating reciprocal obligations and hierarchical adjudication. In Roman adaptations, these relations emphasized pax deorum (peace with gods), where divine disputes required human rituals to harmonize, as Jupiter's arbitrations in Ovid's (c. 8 CE) transformed chaos into structured cosmos. Such narratives, preserved in tablets from (e.g., Enuma Elish, c. 18th–12th century BCE) and Vedic hymns (, c. 1500–1200 BCE), reveal causal patterns where godly rivalries drive creation, seasonal cycles, or ethical dualities, without implying but rather bounded agency within polycentric divine polities.

Worship Practices and Rituals


Polytheistic worship practices emphasize ritual actions over doctrinal belief, focusing on to secure tangible benefits such as agricultural success, military victory, or personal prosperity through a principle of reciprocity known as do ut des ("I give so that you may give"). These rituals, evidenced in ancient texts like the and , involve offerings to specific deities tailored to their domains, reflecting the belief in gods with distinct powers and personalities. Archaeological finds, such as animal bones at Mycenaean sites like , corroborate textual descriptions of sacrificial remains. Central to these practices are sacrifices, predominantly of food animals like cattle, sheep, or pigs, where the inedible portions—such as thigh bones (mêria) and fat—are burnt on altars as gifts to the gods, while the edible meat is roasted and shared in communal feasts, fostering social cohesion alongside divine appeasement. Pre-sacrifice rites include purification through hand-washing, scattering barley grains, and cutting sacrificial hairs, followed by throat-slitting, with omens read from organs or flight patterns to confirm divine acceptance; errors in procedure, such as improper sequencing, could invalidate the rite, necessitating repetition. Bloodless offerings, libations of wine, water, milk, oil, or honey, and votive dedications like weapons or jewelry supplemented animal sacrifices, directed upward via smoke for sky deities or poured downward for chthonic ones. Prayers accompanied offerings, often specifying the deity, the request, and vows of future gifts, recited during processions or at temples by or individuals; household shrines enabled daily personal rituals, distinct from public civic events. Festivals, tied to calendars like agricultural cycles, amplified these practices through large-scale sacrifices, , dances, and games, as seen in Greco-Roman examples where libations and prayers preceded communal banquets. In Mesopotamian and Egyptian systems, similar transactional rituals prevailed, with temple complexes hosting daily offerings and periodic rites, evidenced by tablets and temple inscriptions detailing procedures for gods like or . appears in isolated archaeological contexts, such as royal tombs in ancient dating to circa 2800 BCE, but was atypical compared to animal or vegetal forms across most polytheistic traditions. These practices underscore a causal where precise performance influences divine actions, prioritizing empirical efficacy over abstract .

Historical Development and Traditions

Ancient Near Eastern and Mesopotamian Polytheism

Polytheistic traditions in the Ancient Near East, centered in Mesopotamia from the Sumerian period around 3500 BCE, involved worship of numerous anthropomorphic deities embodying natural phenomena, cosmic principles, and human societal roles, with each city-state venerating a patron god within a structured pantheon. Deities possessed human-like forms, emotions, and requirements such as sustenance, yet exhibited superhuman immortality and a radiant aura (melammu), rendering them capricious and demanding constant ritual appeasement to avert misfortune. The pantheon numbered in the thousands, organized hierarchically and sociomorphically to mirror human kingship and bureaucracy, with major figures including Anu as the distant sky father and ultimate sovereign (associated with the number 60), Enlil as lord of air, storms, and destinies (number 50), Enki/Ea as god of subterranean waters, wisdom, and craft (number 40), and Inanna/Ishtar as goddess of Venus, sexuality, warfare, and fertility (number 15). In later Babylonian contexts, Marduk supplanted Enlil as premier deity, reflecting political shifts toward Babylonian hegemony around the 18th century BCE. Cosmological myths underscored divine conflicts establishing order from primordial chaos, as in the Enūma Eliš, a Babylonian epic composed circa 1900–1500 BCE, wherein Marduk slays the saltwater chaos goddess Tiamat, fashions the heavens and earth from her body, and creates humanity from the blood of her slain general Qingu to serve the gods by bearing their labors. This narrative justified Marduk's supremacy and the earthly king's role in maintaining cosmic harmony through temple rituals. Sumerian precursors, such as the myth of Enki and Ninhursag, depicted deities collaboratively molding humans from clay to relieve divine toil, highlighting themes of creation tied to fertility and irrigation in the alluvial Mesopotamian environment. Worship practices revolved around urban temple complexes, culminating in ziggurats—terraced mud-brick pyramids symbolizing sacred mountains bridging earth and divine realms, with examples like the Ziggurat of Eridu dating to circa 4000 BCE dedicated to Enki, and the Great Ziggurat of Ur constructed around 2100 BCE under King Ur-Nammu. Priests, including high-ranking en priestesses, tended cult statues believed to house the deity's essence, performing daily libations, food offerings, garment changes, and nocturnal hymns to sustain divine vitality and ensure agricultural prosperity. Rituals extended to animal sacrifices, incantations against demons, and divination via extispicy—interpreting sheep livers or entrails for omens—or astral observations, as gods were thought to encode intentions in natural signs, guiding kings in warfare and policy. Broader Ancient Near Eastern polytheism, including Hittite and Canaanite variants, shared Mesopotamian motifs like divine councils and storm gods (e.g., Baal paralleling Enlil), facilitated by cuneiform exchanges, though local adaptations emphasized regional patrons such as Hittite Tarḫunna. These systems persisted through Assyrian dominance (circa 900–612 BCE), where Ashur mirrored Marduk's role, until gradual syncretism with emerging monolatrous tendencies under Persian and Hellenistic influences.

Classical Greco-Roman Polytheism

Classical Greco-Roman polytheism centered on a pantheon of anthropomorphic deities residing on Mount Olympus, each governing specific domains of nature and human endeavor. The Greek system, rooted in Bronze Age traditions dating to 3000–1050 BCE, lacked a centralized scripture or priestly hierarchy, emphasizing ritual observance over doctrinal belief. Homeric epics, composed around the 8th century BCE, depicted gods with human-like traits, passions, and interventions in mortal affairs, shaping cultural understandings of divine hierarchy and genealogy. The principal Greek pantheon comprised twelve Olympian gods: Zeus as sky god and patriarch, Hera as queen of the gods, Poseidon ruling the sea, Demeter over agriculture, Athena embodying wisdom and strategic warfare, Apollo linked to music, prophecy, and healing, Artemis to hunting and chastity, Ares to brutal combat, Aphrodite to love and beauty, Hermes as messenger and trickster, Hephaistos to metalworking, and either Hestia or Dionysus for hearth or wine and ecstasy. Deities were honored through iconography, such as Zeus with the oak tree and thunderbolt or Athena with the owl and olive branch, reflecting their attributes in art and cult sites. Lesser gods, heroes like Heracles, and chthonic figures like Hades supplemented the Olympians, with myths explaining cosmic origins via theogonies attributed to Hesiod around 700 BCE. Worship practices focused on reciprocity via sacrifices and offerings at outdoor altars within sanctuaries (temenos), including animal victims like oxen, goats, or sheep, accompanied by libations of wine or oil. Major festivals, such as the Panhellenic games at Olympia honoring Zeus every four years from circa 776 BCE, Delphi for Apollo, Nemea, and Isthmia, combined athletic contests, music, and rituals to seek divine favor and community cohesion. Oracles, notably Delphi's Pythia, provided prophetic consultations, influencing state decisions in classical Athens and beyond. Roman polytheism adopted extensively from the 3rd century BCE onward through , equating indigenous gods with Olympians—Jupiter with as supreme sky deity, Juno with , with , and Mars with —while retaining unique elements like (god of beginnings and transitions) and emphasizing state cults. Roman practices stressed civic piety (), with collegial priesthoods such as augurs interpreting bird signs for auspices and pontiffs overseeing rituals to maintain pax deorum, the peace with gods essential for empire prosperity. Temples like the Capitoline triad's (, Juno, ) served as focal points for vows and triumphs, integrating conquered deities via to foster imperial unity. Philosophers from the 6th century BCE, including Xenophanes critiquing anthropomorphism and Plato allegorizing myths in works like the Republic (c. 380 BCE), engaged critically yet piously with polytheistic traditions, viewing gods as eternal forms rather than capricious beings. This intellectual layer coexisted with popular cult practices, underscoring polytheism's adaptability without rigid orthodoxy.

Polytheism in Other Ancient Civilizations

Ancient Egyptian polytheism encompassed a diverse pantheon of over 2,000 deities, each linked to specific natural phenomena, societal roles, or cosmic functions, persisting from the Predynastic Period (c. 6000–3100 BCE) through the Roman era until the 4th century CE. Prominent gods included Ra, the solar deity embodying creation and daily renewal via his barque journey across the sky; Osiris, god of the underworld and vegetation cycles tied to the Nile's annual inundation; Isis, protector of the throne and mistress of magic; and Anubis, overseer of embalming and the dead. Pharaohs functioned as living gods, intermediaries ensuring ma'at (cosmic harmony) through temple rituals, offerings, and pyramid constructions like those at Giza (c. 2580–2565 BCE) for Khufu, which symbolized eternal divine kingship. Syncretism was common, as seen in Amun-Ra, merging local Theban Amun with Heliopolitan Ra during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE). In Mesoamerican civilizations, polytheism manifested in intricate cosmologies among the Maya (c. 2000 BCE–1500 CE) and Aztecs (c. 1325–1521 CE), where gods demanded rituals to perpetuate the world's fragile cycles of creation and destruction. Maya deities such as Itzamna, the creator and lord of the heavens associated with writing and calendars, and Chaac, the rain god depicted with lightning axe, influenced agriculture and divination via the Long Count system tracking 5,125-year eras. Aztec worship centered on Huitzilopochtli, tribal patron of war and sun requiring human hearts via temple sacrifices at Tenochtitlan's Templo Mayor (dedicated 1325 CE), alongside Tlaloc for rain and Quetzalcoatl for wind and knowledge; these practices, evidenced by codices and archaeology, aimed to avert apocalyptic ends as per the Five Suns myth. Priestly classes conducted autosacrifice and ball games symbolizing cosmic battles, with up to 20,000 annual victims estimated in Aztec society to nourish deities. Ancient Chinese religion during the Shang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and Zhou (c. 1046–256 BCE) dynasties incorporated polytheistic elements alongside ancestral and the overarching (Heaven), a impersonal force granting tianming (mandate) to rulers. Divinatory oracle bones from (c. 1200 BCE) record appeals to di (high ancestors or gods) like , supreme overseer of fertility and warfare, and nature spirits such as river lords demanding sacrifices for floods or harvests. The pantheon expanded with bureaucratic hierarchies of immortals and local deities, as in Zhou rituals honoring soil altars and grain spirits, though Tian's ethical dimension foreshadowed later monistic interpretations. The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) yields archaeological hints of polytheism through seals depicting a horned figure in yogic pose (possible proto-Shiva or , lord of animals) and terracotta female figurines interpreted as goddesses, alongside ritual bathing sites at suggesting purity rites. However, without deciphered texts, these remain inferential, contrasting with later Vedic polytheism in the region.

Contemporary and Living Polytheistic Systems

Hinduism, emerging from the Vedic traditions of the Indo-Aryans in the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE, exhibits polytheistic elements through the worship of multiple deities known as devas, who personify natural forces, cosmic principles, and moral orders. The Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text dated to approximately 1500–1200 BCE, invokes over 33 principal deities, including Indra as the warrior god of thunder and rain who slays the dragon Vritra to release waters, Agni as the fire god mediating sacrifices, and Varuna as the sovereign overseer of ṛta (cosmic order). These hymns often display henotheistic tendencies, elevating one deity as supreme for the duration of the invocation while acknowledging the existence of others, as evidenced by phrases like "the one god who becomes manifold" in Rigveda 3.53.8. This reflects a practical polytheism rooted in ritual efficacy rather than exclusive devotion, with empirical archaeological correlates in fire altars and votive offerings from the Indus Valley Civilization's late phases (circa 1900–1300 BCE), though direct continuity remains debated due to script undecipherability. Post-Vedic developments, particularly in the epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana, composed circa 400 BCE–400 CE) and Puranas (circa 300–1500 CE), expanded the pantheon into a hierarchical structure centered on the Trimurti: Brahma as creator, Vishnu as preserver incarnating in avatars like Rama and Krishna to restore dharma, and Shiva as destroyer and transformer embodying ascetic renunciation. Vishnu's ten principal avatars (dashavatara), including fish, tortoise, and human forms, illustrate adaptive responses to cosmic cycles (yugas), with Krishna's teachings in the Bhagavad Gita (part of Mahabharata) integrating devotion (bhakti) to a personal god amid multiplicity. Parallel traditions emphasize Shakti (divine feminine energy), manifesting as Durga (warrior against demons), Lakshmi (prosperity consort of Vishnu), and Kali (fierce dissolver of ego), supported by tantric texts from the 5th–9th centuries CE that ritualize these as autonomous powers. Sectarian movements like Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism, which gained prominence from the Gupta Empire (320–550 CE), focus devotion on one deity as supreme (ishta-devata) while incorporating others, fostering a syncretic polytheism evident in over 1 million extant Hindu temples dedicated to diverse gods as of 2023 surveys. Related Indic traditions, including folk and tribal practices integrated into Hinduism, perpetuate polytheistic worship of local deities (grama-devatas) such as village guardians and nature spirits, often syncretized with Vedic gods through possession rituals (bhuta or grama worship) documented in ethnographic studies from regions like Kerala and Odisha. These persist alongside philosophical monism in schools like Advaita Vedanta (8th century CE, Adi Shankara), which posits Brahman as the singular, impersonal reality underlying all deities as illusory manifestations (maya), yet ritual practices remain empirically polytheistic, with annual festivals like Diwali (honoring Lakshmi) and Maha Shivaratri drawing hundreds of millions of participants. Non-theistic Indic systems like Buddhism and Jainism, arising circa 6th–5th centuries BCE, reject deity worship in favor of ethical and meditative paths, diverging from polytheism while coexisting in the cultural matrix. This duality—polytheistic praxis versus monistic metaphysics—arises causally from Vedic ritualism adapting to diverse social needs, without resolving into strict monotheism, as devotional texts prioritize experiential efficacy over doctrinal uniformity.

Indigenous and Folk Polytheisms

Indigenous polytheisms comprise the traditional belief systems of native peoples, featuring worship of multiple deities, spirits, and ancestors linked to specific landscapes, natural forces, and kinship networks. These systems emphasize practical reciprocity with the divine through rituals, offerings, and taboos to secure fertility, protection, and prosperity, often without formalized doctrines or priesthoods dominated by hereditary shamans or elders. In many cases, a distant high god coexists with accessible lesser beings, reflecting causal mechanisms where divine intervention addresses immediate environmental and social contingencies rather than abstract salvation. African traditional religions exemplify this, as seen in Yoruba practices where Olodumare serves as the remote creator, while orishas like (thunder) and (rivers) function as proximate agents influencing human affairs through and . These beliefs underpin communal festivals and ethical norms tied to ancestral , persisting among Yoruba communities in and the , with estimates of 20-30 million adherents globally in 2023 despite missionary pressures. Similar structures appear in Akan and Zulu traditions, where sky gods oversee earth-bound divinities, supporting agricultural cycles via libations and initiations documented in ethnographic studies from the 20th century onward. Shinto, Japan's indigenous tradition dating to at least the CE in textual records like the , centers on —over 8 million estimated entities embodying mountains, rivers, and progenitors—with rituals at shrines maintaining purity and seasonal harmony. Approximately 70-80% of Japanese participate in Shinto rites annually as of 2020, blending with in a folk matrix that prioritizes experiential efficacy over theological exclusivity. Among Native American groups, polytheistic elements persist in living traditions like those of the Lakota, who honor Wakan Tanka as a pervasive sacred force alongside specific spirits (e.g., Thunder Beings) invoked in Sun Dance ceremonies for renewal, with revival efforts post-1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act enabling over 500 tribal nations to reclaim practices suppressed since European contact in the 15th century. Navajo chants address Holy People governing directions and elements, empirically linked to healing outcomes in community settings as reported in anthropological fieldwork. Philippine anito cults, involving spirit mediums appeasing nature guardians, similarly endure in rural areas, illustrating Southeast Asian indigenous patterns resistant to Spanish Christianization from 1521. Folk polytheisms extend these into vernacular layers, as in Chinese practices venerating deities like the Jade Emperor alongside local gods via temple guilds, with over 200 million participants in 2020 surveys emphasizing ancestral altars for lineage continuity. These systems demonstrate resilience through adaptation, where polytheistic multiplicity accommodates causal pluralism—multiple agents for diverse phenomena—contrasting monotheistic uniformity, though colonial records from missionaries often biased toward portraying them as idolatrous.

Modern Revival and Neopagan Movements

The modern revival of polytheistic practices in Western contexts traces its organized beginnings to the mid-20th century, amid broader interests in occultism, , and Romantic-era antiquarianism that had persisted since the . , a British civil servant and occultist, publicized in 1954 through his book Witchcraft Today, presenting it as a surviving ancient fertility religion involving worship of a and triple goddess, though subsequent scholarship has identified it as a synthesis of , , and folk traditions rather than a direct continuity. 's duotheistic framework, emphasizing a divine pair, influenced early Neopagan polytheism by encouraging eclectic of multiple deities drawn from various pantheons. The 1960s countercultural movements accelerated Neopagan growth, with Wicca spreading to the United States via figures like Raymond Buckland, who established the first coven there in 1964. This period saw the emergence of distinct polytheistic branches, including Asatru (also known as Heathenry or Germanic Neopaganism), formalized in Iceland in 1972 by Sveinbörn Beinteinsson as a reconstruction of pre-Christian Norse religion centered on gods like Odin, Thor, and Freyja. Hellenic polytheism, reviving worship of the Olympian gods such as Zeus and Athena, gained traction in the 1990s through groups like YSEE in Greece, emphasizing rituals derived from ancient texts like the Homeric hymns. Other reconstructionist efforts include Kemeticism, focused on Egyptian deities like Ra and Isis, and various Slavic or Baltic revivals, though these often adapt sparse historical sources with modern interpretations. Polytheistic reconstructionism as a methodological approach arose in the late 1960s to early 1970s, prioritizing ethnographic and textual evidence to approximate ancient practices, in contrast to Wicca's more fluid, initiatory esotericism. Adherents typically engage in rituals such as blóts (offerings) to specific gods, seasonal festivals aligned with solstices and equinoxes, and hearth-based devotionals, often in small kindreds or groves rather than large temples. However, critics within and outside the movements note persistent deviations from historical accuracy, including anachronistic incorporations of psychotherapy, environmentalism, and feminist theology, as ancient sources rarely support unified dogmas or egalitarian structures. Estimates of global adherents vary due to self-identification and lack of centralized authority, with approximately 1 million in the United States and smaller communities elsewhere, reflecting growth tied to individualism and dissatisfaction with monotheistic institutions. Neopagan polytheism remains decentralized and diverse, with tensions between "hard" reconstructionists seeking fidelity to lore and "soft" eclectics who prioritize personal over . Legal recognition has advanced in some nations, such as Asatru's status as an official religion in Iceland since 1973, enabling public rituals and temple in 2015. Despite this, the movements face internal debates over inclusivity, such as universalist versus folkish (ancestry-based) approaches in Heathenry, and external scrutiny for occasional associations with ethnonationalism, though most emphasize ethical pluralism derived from ancient virtues like reciprocity with the gods.

Comparative Analysis and Debates

Polytheism Versus : Causal and Empirical Arguments

The , as articulated in variants like the formulation, posits that the universe's finite age—estimated at 13.8 billion years based on radiation data—requires an external, timeless cause to initiate . Polytheism complicates this by introducing multiple uncaused causes, each necessitating its own explanation for origin and coordination, whereas aligns with a singular necessary being that avoids explanatory regress and matches the observed causal chain from to galactic formation under unified physical laws. This parsimony favors , as multiple deities would predict potential disharmonies in natural processes, such as inconsistent gravitational constants, which empirical measurements (e.g., G ≈ 6.67430 × 10^{-11} m³ kg^{-1} s^{-2}) show to be and universal. Proponents of polytheism counter that the manifest plurality of causal forces in nature—evident in phenomena like tectonic plate collisions driving earthquakes or evolutionary speciation yielding diverse biological forms—better reflects independent divine agencies with specialized domains, rather than a monolithic cause imposing artificial unity. Such a model causally accommodates apparent randomness and conflict without invoking a single entity's permissive will for disorder, as monotheism must for events like the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami that killed approximately 230,000 people. However, this distributed causality falters empirically against the convergence of disparate physical theories (e.g., electroweak unification at energies around 100 GeV), which imply an underlying singular framework incompatible with rival divine interventions. Empirically, polytheism draws support from the cross-cultural ubiquity of plural divine attributions in religious experiences, as cataloged in anthropological surveys spanning ancient Egyptian pantheons (evidenced by Karnak temple inscriptions circa 1479 BCE) to contemporary shamanic traditions reporting entity-specific encounters. This diversity challenges 's claim of a uniform divine reality filtered through human limitation, suggesting instead multiple transcendent sources without the need for interpretive harmonization. Monotheistic responses invoke evidential prioritization of scripture-verified events, such as the claims in 1 Corinthians 15 (circa 55 CE), but these remain contested amid polytheism's broader accommodation of unverified plural testimonies, though neither yields repeatable laboratory confirmation. Fine-tuning arguments, noting parameters like the (Λ ≈ 10^{-52} m^{-2}) enabling , empirically tilt toward monotheism by indicating deliberate over polytheistic contingency. Critics of monotheism highlight its historical correlation with doctrinal exclusivity, empirically linked to conflicts like the Roman persecutions of polytheists under Theodosius I's edicts (391 CE), as evidence of causal rigidity fostering division rather than polytheism's observed syncretism in Hellenistic cults. Yet, causal realism underscores that societal outcomes do not directly probe ontological truth; polytheistic empires, such as Assyria's conquests (circa 911–609 BCE), exhibited comparable aggression without monotheism's unifying moral teleology. Ultimately, empirical data from unified field theories and cosmic homogeneity (e.g., CMB isotropy at 1 part in 10^5) provide stronger causal grounding for monotheism's singular origin over polytheism's fragmented alternatives.

Compatibility with Science and Modernity

Ancient Greek polytheism coincided with pioneering , as evidenced by the Presocratic philosophers who sought naturalistic explanations for phenomena like earthquakes and celestial movements, attributing them to principles such as water or the boundless rather than solely divine whims, though within a worldview acknowledging gods as influencers of nature. This empirical orientation, exemplified by Thales' prediction of a around 585 BCE and ' mathematical theorems circa 530 BCE, demonstrates polytheism's capacity to foster inquiry without inherent opposition to observation-based knowledge. Similarly, in Vedic , polytheistic rituals necessitated precise astronomical computations and the development of decimal notation and infinite series approximations by figures like in the 5th century CE, integrating divine cosmology with mathematical rigor. Philosophically, polytheism's decentralized pantheons permit diverse interpretations of divine agency, often treating myths as rather than literal histories, which mitigates tensions with empirical disconfirmation. This contrasts with rigid scriptural inerrancy in some monotheistic traditions, enabling polytheists to view scientific laws as mechanisms through which gods operate, preserving causal pluralism aligned with observed natural complexity. In Hindu thought, for instance, cyclical cosmologies in texts like the , positing universe ages of billions of years, have been noted by astronomers like as presciently aligning with timelines estimated at 13.8 billion years. In contemporary settings, polytheistic adherents frequently affirm compatibility with modernity's scientific ethos. Surveys of Hindus in regions like and reveal a predominant that and are interconnected and mutually reinforcing, with no fundamental discord. Modern revivals, such as Hellenic reconstructionism and Neopaganism, explicitly reconcile deities with and physics, interpreting gods as archetypal forces or personifications of quantum indeterminacy and ecological systems, thus adapting to secular pluralism without relinquishing spiritual frameworks. This adaptability underscores polytheism's resilience in technologically advanced societies, where it supports ethical pluralism amid empirical progress.

Ethical and Moral Implications

In polytheistic systems, ethical obligations primarily arise from reciprocal exchanges with deities through rituals and offerings, rather than from universal moral imperatives imposed by a singular divine . This pragmatic orientation prioritizes maintaining cosmic and social harmony—often termed pax deorum in Roman contexts or ritual conduct in Mesopotamian traditions—over abstract ethical doctrines, as divine favor was sought to avert misfortune rather than to embody moral perfection. Historical evidence from ancient Near Eastern texts, such as Sumerian hymns, illustrates as submission to unpredictable divine forces, where moral lapses were secondary to failures in cultic duties. Ancient Greek polytheism exemplifies this separation of religion from systematic ethics, with philosophers like Plato and Aristotle developing moral theories independently of Olympian mythology, critiquing the gods' anthropomorphic flaws—such as Zeus's adulteries—as unsuitable exemplars for human virtue. The Euthyphro dilemma, posed in Plato's dialogue, questions whether piety stems from divine approval or inherent goodness, highlighting tensions between ritual observance and rational ethics. In practice, Greek morality emphasized arete (excellence) in civic and personal spheres, influenced more by Homeric heroic ideals than godly conduct, allowing for contextual judgments like justified deception in wartime. In Indic polytheistic traditions like , ethics manifest through dharma, a multifaceted concept denoting duty aligned with one's social role, life stage, and cosmic order, rather than invariant rules. The (c. 200 BCE–200 CE) codifies varnashrama dharma, prescribing context-specific behaviors—e.g., warriors may employ violence, while ascetics pursue non-harm—reflecting polytheism's accommodation of diverse divine attributes and human conditions. This relativity fosters adaptability but invites critiques of inconsistency, as conflicting duties (e.g., familial loyalty versus broader ) require interpretive resolution, potentially undermining universal accountability. Broader moral implications include enhanced tolerance for plural practices, as multiple gods permit competing values without doctrinal exclusivity, evidenced by ancient Egyptian syncretism blending deities across regions. Conversely, the absence of a monolithic moral axis can engender relativism, where ethical norms derive from cultural expediency rather than transcendent standards, correlating with historical phenomena like ritual human sacrifice in Aztec polytheism (c. 14th–16th centuries CE) to appease specific gods. Philosophers like Max Weber noted polytheism's reflection of life's "vying values," pragmatically mirroring empirical human diversity without resolving into absolutism. Empirical comparisons suggest polytheistic societies exhibited variable moral enforcement, often prioritizing communal stability over individual rights, contrasting monotheism's emphasis on covenantal universality.

Criticisms, Defenses, and Societal Impacts

Theological and Philosophical Critiques

of Colophon (c. 570–c. 475 BCE), an early Greek philosopher, mounted one of the earliest systematic critiques of traditional polytheism by targeting its anthropomorphic and morally flawed depictions of deities as found in Homeric and Hesiodic . He argued that ascribing human vices such as , , and deceit to gods was improper, as divine beings should embody perfection rather than emulate mortal failings (Fragment B11). Furthermore, satirized the cultural projection inherent in polytheistic imagery, noting that if oxen or lions could sculpt gods, they would fashion them in animal forms resembling themselves, while depicted dark-skinned, snub-nosed gods and blue-eyed, red-haired ones (Fragments B15–B16). This highlighted how polytheistic traditions reflected human biases rather than objective divine reality, leading him to posit a singular, non-anthropomorphic god who thinks the world into motion without bodily effort or locomotion (Fragments B23–B26). In monotheistic theological traditions, particularly , polytheism has been critiqued for fragmenting divine unity and introducing incoherence into cosmic governance. , in his (c. 1265–1274), contended that multiple gods could not coexist without disorder, as differing wills among supreme beings would generate conflict: if one god's intention opposed another's, neither could fully realize its purpose, contradicting the observed harmony of the under a single providential order (I, q. 11, a. 3). He further argued that all gods would share an identical divine nature, rendering distinctions illusory, or if differentiated, they could not all be first causes without hierarchical subordination, ultimately requiring a singular uncaused cause (I, q. 11, a. 1–2). Similar reasoning appears in Islamic theology, where polytheism (shirk) is rejected for positing co-equal creators whose uncoordinated actions would preclude the world's unified causality. Philosophically, critiques often invoke principles of parsimony and causal realism to favor or naturalism over polytheism's proliferation of entities. The argument from the world's observable unity posits that a single explanatory cause accounts for cosmic order more efficiently than multiple deities, whose interactions—such as rivalries or domain divisions—multiply unverified assumptions without enhancing predictive power (e.g., applied to divine multiplicity). Polytheistic gods, typically limited in scope and prone to anthropomorphic flaws like or defeat in myths, fail to resolve the "one and the many" problem: how disparate divine agencies produce coherent reality without perpetual strife or delegation to a supreme unity. Empirical observation reinforces this, as no verifiable interventions from distinct gods occur, unlike the unified laws of physics suggesting a non-pluralistic substrate.

Historical Abuses and Achievements

In ancient polytheistic societies, religious beliefs often motivated monumental and feats dedicated to deities, such as the Egyptian pyramids constructed between approximately 2630 and 2500 BCE for pharaohs regarded as divine intermediaries, exemplifying advanced quarrying, surveying, and labor organization. Similarly, Greek temples like the , completed in 438 BCE and honoring , incorporated precise mathematical proportions and optical refinements that influenced classical and . These projects, tied to rituals appeasing gods, fostered innovations in and , though primarily serving elite religious and political agendas rather than broad utilitarian ends. Polytheistic frameworks in spurred astronomical and mathematical developments for ritual calendars and altar designs, as seen in Vedic texts from around 1500–500 BCE that employed geometric computations for sacrificial fires and tracked celestial events to align ceremonies with divine cycles. Aryabhata's 5th-century CE work on zero, , and built on this tradition, enabling predictive models for eclipses and planetary motions essential to orientations and festivals. In , polytheistic myths provided narrative foundations for , with pre-Socratics like (c. 570–475 BCE) critiquing anthropomorphic gods while probing natural causes, laying groundwork for rational inquiry amid pervasive theistic assumptions. Conversely, polytheistic practices included ritual human and child sacrifices to propitiate gods, as evidenced by Aztec tzompantli skull racks at Tenochtitlan, where excavations uncovered over 180 complete skulls and fragments suggesting thousands displayed circa 1487 CE during temple dedications to sustain cosmic order. Estimates of annual victims range from hundreds to 20,000, corroborated by archaeological cuts on bones indicating heart extraction for deities like Huitzilopochtli, though Spanish chroniclers' higher figures may exaggerate for justification of conquest. In Carthage, tophet sites yielded urns with cremated infant remains from the 8th–2nd centuries BCE, isotopic analysis confirming local children sacrificed to Baal and Tanit during crises, with over 20,000 such burials indicating systematic infanticide rather than natural deaths. These acts, rooted in beliefs of divine appeasement, enforced social hierarchies and diverted resources from welfare, contributing to societal instability. Polytheism also underpinned conquests and internal conflicts framed as divine mandates, such as Roman expansions invoking Jupiter's favor from the 3rd century BCE onward, leading to enslavement and cultural suppression, though its syncretic nature often integrated rather than eradicated foreign gods, mitigating some persecutions compared to monotheistic exclusivism. In , temple priesthoods wielded through land endowments, sometimes inciting factional strife, while Greek city-state wars, like the Peloponnesian (431–404 BCE), drew oracular endorsements from Apollo, blending piety with . Such integrations highlight polytheism's causal role in both cooperative pluralism and ritualized violence, with empirical records showing achievements in knowledge production alongside abuses exacting high human costs.

Persistence and Resurgence in the Modern Era

Despite the historical dominance of monotheistic religions, polytheistic practices have persisted in syncretic and folk forms across various regions, often blending with dominant faiths while retaining worship of multiple deities. In , remnants of pre-Christian polytheism survive in seasonal festivals and rural customs, such as celebrations in that echo ancient Norse rituals honoring gods like . These elements demonstrate causal continuity from ancient traditions, resisting full erasure through cultural transmission rather than institutional revival. The has witnessed a measurable resurgence of explicitly polytheistic identifications, particularly through reconstructionist movements that seek to revive ancient pantheons based on historical texts and . In the United States, self-identified Pagans, many of whom embrace polytheistic frameworks like Hellenic or Norse , number around 1 million, reflecting growth driven by , communities, and dissatisfaction with monotheistic exclusivity. This expansion is evidenced by the rise in Wiccan adherents from an estimated 8,000 in 1990 to 342,000 by 2008, per survey data, with polytheistic subgroups contributing to broader Pagan demographics. Census data from Europe underscores this trend's acceleration. In England and Wales, the 2021 census reported 74,000 individuals identifying as Pagan, surpassing prior counts and positioning it as the largest "other religion" category, with polytheistic orientations prominent in subgroups like Heathenry. Scotland's census similarly showed Pagan numbers quadrupling to 19,113 since 2011, attributing growth to organized groups reconstructing Celtic and Norse polytheisms. In Iceland, the Ásatrú community, focused on Norse gods, grew to over 5,000 registered members by the 2020s, gaining official recognition and temple construction in 2021, signaling institutional persistence amid secularization. Globally, estimates place modern Pagan adherents exceeding 1 million, with revivals in Eastern Europe—such as Slavic Rodnovery claiming tens of thousands—and Central Asia's Tengrist movements drawing on Turkic sky-god worship, though exact figures remain underreported due to informal practices. These developments correlate with empirical shifts: declining Christian affiliation in the West (from 78% to 63% of U.S. adults between 2007 and 2021) creates space for alternatives valuing experiential deity encounters over singular revelation. Scholars note this resurgence challenges monotheistic hegemony not through proselytism but via decentralized, evidence-based reconstruction from primary sources like Eddas or Homeric hymns, fostering resilience against institutional biases favoring Abrahamic faiths.

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  134. https://scottishpf.org/pagan-census-results/
  135. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/09/13/how-u-s-religious-composition-has-changed-in-recent-decades/
  136. https://journal.equinoxpub.com/POM/article/view/22530
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