Hubbry Logo
LakshmiLakshmiMain
Open search
Lakshmi
Community hub
Lakshmi
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Lakshmi
Lakshmi
Lakshmi
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Lakshmi
Mother Goddess
Goddess of Wealth, Prosperity, Fortune, Sovereignty, Fertility, Abundance and Beauty[1][2]
Supreme Goddess in Vaishnavism[3]
Member of Tridevi and Pancha Prakriti
Sri Gaja Lakshmi by Raja Ravi Varma (1896)
Other names
Devanagariलक्ष्मी
Affiliation
Abode
MantraOṃ Śrīṃ Mahālakṣmyai Namaḥ
Oṃ Śrīṃ Śriye Namaḥ
Symbols
TreeTulasi
DayFriday
Mount
Festivals
Genealogy
SiblingsAlakshmi
ConsortVishnu[5]

Lakshmi (/ˈlʌkʃmi/;[6][nb 1] Sanskrit: लक्ष्मी, IAST: Lakṣmī, sometimes spelled Laxmi), also known as Shri (Sanskrit: श्री, IAST: Śrī),[8] is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of happiness, fortune, wealth, prosperity, beauty, fertility, sovereignty, and abundance.[9][10][11] She along with Parvati and Sarasvati, form the trinity of goddesses called the Tridevi.[12][13]

Lakshmi has been a central figure in Hindu tradition since pre-Buddhist times (1500 to 500 BCE) and remains one of the most widely worshipped goddesses in the Hindu pantheon. Although she does not appear in the earliest Vedic literature, the personification of the term shri—auspiciousness, glory, and high rank, often associated with kingship—eventually led to the development of Sri-Lakshmi as a goddess in later Vedic texts, particularly the Shri Suktam.[10] Her importance grew significantly during the late epic period (around 400 CE), when she became particularly associated with the preserver god Vishnu as his consort. In this role, Lakshmi is seen as the ideal Hindu wife, exemplifying loyalty and devotion to her husband.[10] Whenever Vishnu descended on the earth as an avatar, Lakshmi accompanied him as consort, for example, as Sita and Radha or Rukmini as consorts of Vishnu's avatars Rama and Krishna, respectively.[8][14][15]

Lakshmi holds a prominent place in the Vishnu-centric sect of Vaishnavism, where she is not only regarded as the consort of Vishnu, the Supreme Being, but also as his divine energy (shakti).[10] she is also the Supreme Goddess in the sect and assists Vishnu to create, protect, and transform the universe.[5][14][16][17] She is an especially prominent figure in Sri Vaishnavism tradition, in which devotion to Lakshmi is deemed to be crucial to reach Vishnu.[18] Within the goddess-oriented Shaktism, Lakshmi is venerated as the prosperity aspect of the Supreme goddess.[19][14] The eight prominent manifestations of Lakshmi, the Ashtalakshmi, symbolise the eight sources of wealth.[20]

Lakshmi is depicted in Indian art as an elegantly dressed, prosperity-showering golden-coloured woman standing or sitting in the padmasana position upon a lotus throne, while holding a lotus in her hand, symbolising fortune, self-knowledge, and spiritual liberation.[21][22] Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four aspects of human life important to Hindu culture: dharma, kama, artha, and moksha.[23][24] She is often accompanied by two elephants, as seen in the Gaja-Lakshmi images, symbolising both fertility and royal authority. The Gupta period sculpture and coins only associate lions with Lakshmi, often flanking her on either side.

Archaeological discoveries and ancient coinage suggest a recognition and reverence for Lakshmi by the first millennium BCE.[25][26] Iconography and statues of Lakshmi have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the first millennium CE.[27][28] The day of Lakshmi Puja during Navaratri, and the festivals of Deepavali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honour.[29]

Etymology and epithets

[edit]
Main article: 108 Names of Lakshmi
Part of a series on
Hinduism
Origins
Historical

Traditional

Sampradaya (traditions)
Major Sampradaya (traditions)
Deities
Other major Devas / Devis
Vedic Deities:
Post-Vedic:
Concepts
Worldview
Ontology
God
Mokṣa-related topics:
Mind
Ethics
Practices
Worship, sacrifice, and charity
Meditation
Philosophical schools
Other schools
Gurus, Rishi, philosophers
Modern
Texts
Divisions
Principal Upanishads
Rigveda:
Yajurveda:
Samaveda:
Atharvaveda:
Hindu culture & society
Society
Hindu art
Hindu architecture
Hindu music
Food & diet customs
Time keeping practices
Hindu pilgrimage
Other society-related topics
Other topics
Hinduism & other religions
Other related links (templates)

Lakshmi in Sanskrit is derived from the root word lakṣ (लक्ष्) and lakṣa (लक्ष), meaning 'to perceive, observe, know, understand' and 'goal, aim, objective', respectively.[30] These roots give Lakshmi the symbolism: know and understand your goal.[31] A related term is lakṣaṇa, which means 'sign, target, aim, symbol, attribute, quality, lucky mark, auspicious opportunity'.[32]

The meaning and significance of Lakshmi evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts.[33] Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, in which the name is used to mean 'kindred mark, sign of auspicious fortune'.

भद्रैषां लक्ष्मीर्निहिताधि वाचि
bhadraiṣāṁ lakṣmīrnihitādhi vāci

—Rig Veda, x.71.2
Translation:

"an auspicious fortune is attached to their words"

—translated by John Muir[33]

Another important name of Lakshmi is Shri (Śrī), and the relationship between the two names is both etymologically and conceptually significant in Hindu sacred literature. The name Shri pervades Vedic literature, including the Rigveda, where she is mentioned approximately 130 times across various hymns. In these contexts, Shri consistently denotes ideas of prosperity, fertility, success, and auspiciousness. The name Lakshmi, by contrast, is more prominently used in later Puranic literature. Nonetheless, both names refer to the same divine figure, with the distinction between them rarely emphasized in early texts. However, some linguists note that they carry slightly different connotations. "Śrī" tends to denote general prosperity and auspiciousness, while "Lakṣmī" refers more specifically to material wealth. In Tamil-speaking traditions, the name Lakṣmī is rendered as Ilakkumi or Tiru, the latter being the regional equivalent of "Śrī," highlighting her continuity and adaptability across linguistic and cultural contexts.[34]

Gaja Lakshmi, Cambodia, ca. 944-968

Lakshmi has numerous epithets and numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite her various names:[35][36] such as Sri (Radiance, eminence, splendor, wealth), Padmā (she who is mounted upon or dwelling in a lotus or She of the lotus), Kamalā or Kamalatmika (She of the lotus), Padmapriyā (Lotus-lover), Padmamālādhāra Devī (Goddess bearing a garland of lotuses), Padmamukhī (Lotus-faced-she whose face is as like as a lotus), Padmākṣī: (Lotus-eyed - she whose eyes are as beautiful as a lotus), Padmahasta: (Lotus-hand - she whose hand is holding [a] lotus[es]), Padmasundarī (She who is as beautiful as a lotus), Padmavati (She who was born from a lotus), Śrījā (Jatika of Sri), Narayani (belonging to Narayana or the wife of Narayana), Vaishnavi (worshipper of Vishnu or the power of Vishnu), Viṣṇupriyā (who is the beloved of Vishnu), Nandika (the one who gives pleasure). Shaktas also consider Lalita, who is praised with 1,000 names in the Lalita Sahasranama, as Lakshmi.[37]

Lakshmi Sahasranama of Skanda Purana praises Lakshmi as Mahadevi (she who is the great goddess), Mahamaya (she who is a great illusion), Karaveera Nivasini (The Goddess Who lives in Karaveera/Kolhapur) and Maha Astha Dasa Pithagne (she who has 18 great Shakta pithas). She is also praised as Mahalakshmi (she who is great Lakshmi), Mahakali (she who is great Kali), and Mahasaraswati (she who is great Saraswati) who are the primary deities in Devi Mahatmya. The other prominent names included in this text are, Bhuvaneshvari (she who is the Queen or ruler of the Universe), Katyayani (she who is the daughter of sage Katyayana), Kaushiki (Shakti that came out of the sheath (or Kosha) of Parvati), Brahmani (She who is the power of Brahma), Kamakshi (she who fulfils desires by her eyes), Chandi (she who killed Mahishasura), Chamunda (She who killed Chanda and Munda), Madhu Kaidabha Bhanjini (she who killed Madhu and Kaidabha), Durga (she who killed Durgamasura), Maheshvari (she who is the power of Maheshvara), Varahi (she who is the power of Varaha, a form of Vishnu), Narasimhi (she who is the power of Narasimha, a form of Vishnu), Srividyaa (she who is Sri Vidya), Sri Manthra Raja Rajini (the queen of Sri Vidya), Shadadharadhi devata (she who is the goddess of the six chakras).[38][39] Dutch author Dirk van der Plas says, "In Lakshmi Tantra, a text of Visnuite signature, the name Mahamaya is connected with third or destructive of Goddess' three partial functions, while in supreme form she is identified with Lakshmi".[40]

Her other names include:[35][41] Aishwarya, Akhila, Anagha, Anapagamini, Anumati, Apara, Aruna, Atibha, Avashya, Bala, Bhargavi, Bhudevi, Chakrika, Chanchala, Chandravadana, Chandrasahodari, Chandraroopa, Devi, Deepta, Dhruti, Haripriya, Harini, Harivallabha, Hemamalini, Hiranyavarna, Indira, Jalaja, Jambhavati, Janaki, Janamodini, Jyoti, Jyotsna, Kalyani, Kamalika, Ketaki, Kriyalakshmi, Kshirsha, Kuhu, Lalima, Madhavi, Madhu, Malti, Manushri, Nandika, Nandini, Nikhila, Nila Devi, Nimeshika, Padmavati, Parama, Prachi, Purnima, Radha, Ramaa, Rukmini, Samruddhi, Samudra Tanaya, Satyabhama, Shraddha, Shreeya, Sita, Smriti, Sridevi, Sudha, Sujata, Swarna Kamala, Taruni, Tilottama, Tulasi, Vasuda, Vasudhara, Vasundhara, Varada, Varalakshmi, Vedavati, Vidya, Vimala, and Viroopa.

Iconography and symbolism

[edit]
Goddess Lakshmi
Sanchi Stupa, 1st century CE
Bharhut Stupa, circa 110 BCE
Coins of Gandhara, 1st century BCE
Coinage of Gupta Empire
Cambodia
Vietnam, 10th century
Malaysia
Tanjavur
Lakshmi's iconography is found in ancient and modern Hindu and Buddhist temples.

The image, icons, and sculptures of Lakshmi are represented with symbolism. Her name is derived from Sanskrit root words for knowing the goal and understanding the objective.[31] Her four arms are symbolic of the four goals of humanity that are considered good in Hinduism: dharma (pursuit of ethical, moral life), artha (pursuit of wealth, means of life), kama (pursuit of love, emotional fulfillment), and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge, liberation).[24][42]

In Lakshmi's iconography, she is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying a lotus in one or two hands. The lotus carries symbolic meanings in Hinduism and other Indian traditions. It symbolizes knowledge, self-realization, and liberation in the Vedic context, and represents reality, consciousness, and karma ('work, deed') in the Tantra (Sahasrara) context.[43] The lotus, a flower that blooms in clean or dirty water, also symbolises purity regardless of the good or bad circumstances in which it grows. It is a reminder that good and prosperity can bloom and not be affected by evil in one's surroundings.[44][45]

Below, behind, or on the sides, Lakshmi is very often shown with one or two elephants, known as Gajalakshmi, and occasionally with an owl.[46] Elephants symbolise work, activity, and strength, as well as water, rain, and fertility for abundant prosperity.[47] The owl signifies the patient striving to observe, see, and discover knowledge, particularly when surrounded by darkness. As a bird reputedly blinded by daylight, the owl also serves as a symbolic reminder to refrain from blindness and greed after knowledge and wealth have been acquired.[48]

According to historian D. D. Kosambi, most of the Imperial Gupta kings were Vaishnavas and held the goddess Lakshmi in the highest esteem.[49] Goddess Lakshmi is Simhavahini (mount as lion) on most of the coins during their rule.[50] Coins during the rule of Prakashadiya, a Gupta ruler, contain the Garudadhvaja on the obverse and Lakshmi on the reverse.[49]

The Gupta period sculpture only used to associate lions with Lakshmi, but was later attributed to Durga or a combined form of both goddesses.[51][52][53] Lions were a 'vahana' of Lakshmi,[54] Lions are also associated with Veera Lakshmi, who is one of the Ashtalakshmi.[55] Historian B. C. Bhattacharya says, "An image of Gajalakshmi is found with two lions — one on either side of her. Two elephants are also shown near her head and by this we can say that Lion is also the vahana of Lakshmi along with Garuda".[56]

In some representations, wealth either symbolically pours out from one of her hands or she simply holds a jar of money. This symbolism has a dual meaning: wealth manifested through Lakshmi means both materials as well as spiritual wealth.[43] Her face and open hands are in a mudra that signifies compassion, giving or dāna ('charity').[42]

Lakshmi typically wears a red dress embroidered with golden threads, which symbolizes fortune and wealth. She, goddess of wealth and prosperity, is often represented with her husband Vishnu, the god who maintains human life filled with justice and peace. This symbolism implies wealth and prosperity are coupled with the maintenance of life, justice, and peace.[43] When Lakshmi and Vishnu appear together in images and statues, she is significantly smaller, which is often used to portray her devotional status as a wife. A frequently depicted scene of the pair illustrates Lakshmi massaging Vishnu's feet.[57]

Alternatively, Lakshmi Sahasranama of Skanda Purana, Lakshmi Tantra, and Markandeya Purana describe Lakshmi as having eighteen hands and is described as holding rosary, axe, mace, arrow, thunderbolt, lotus, pitcher, rod, sakti, sword, shield, conch, bell, wine-cup, trident, noose, and the discus in her eighteen hands, and as sitting on Garuda, a lion, or a tiger.[58][59][60] According to the Lakshmi Tantra, the goddess Lakshmi, in her ultimate form of Mahasri, has four arms of a golden complexion, and holds a citron, a club, a shield, and a vessel containing amrita.[61] In the Skanda Purana and the Venkatachala Mahatmayam, Sri, or Lakshmi, is praised as the mother of Brahma.[62]

In Japan, where Lakshmi is known as Kisshōten, she is commonly depicted with the Nyoihōju gem (如意宝珠) in her hand.[63]

Lakshmi is a member of the Tridevi, the triad of great goddesses. She represents the Rajas guna, and the Iccha-shakti.[64][65]

Historical development and attestations

[edit]

Origin

[edit]
Lakshmi lustrated by elephants, Uttar Pradesh, Kausambi, 1st century BCE

The origins of Shri-Lakshmi can be traced to the earliest layers of Hindu sacred literature, particularly the Vedas. In the earliest texts, Shri or Lakshmi does not initially appear as a fully personified deity but as a collection of auspicious qualities and states such as radiance, beauty, abundance, power, and majesty. According to scholar Mandakranta Bose, this cluster of positive forces was gradually personified into a female divinity—a process consistent with a wider Indo-European pattern, in which ideals of well-being and sovereignty took the form of goddess figures. David Kinsley similarly notes that Lakshmi represents a type of royal goddess common to many Indo-European mythologies. Kinsley also notes that reverence of Shri-Lakshmi is particularly predates Buddhism, being featured in various stupa panels.[34]

While Lakshmi is often associated with success and dominion, her most enduring role in early Hinduism was that of a provider. Scholar Sukumari Bhattacharji, draws attention to the linguistic parallel between the Sanskrit term "Śrī" and the Latin "Ceres," the Roman goddess of fertility and agriculture, suggesting a shared etymological origin. Bhattacharji proposes that this connection reflects a deeper Indo-European tradition of female divinities tied to agricultural prosperity and maternal nourishment. Bhattacharji also offers a numismatic insight, pointing to the Kushana-era image of a goddess labeled "Ommo," who holds both a lotus and a cornucopia—symbols of fertility and abundance. She suggests that this figure may be more accurately identified with Śrī than with the more commonly assumed Uma, thus representing an early visual form of the goddess Lakshmi as she later appears in Puranic iconography. The depiction reinforces the idea of Lakshmi’s agrarian character, a view supported by her consistent association with fertility and wealth in early sources.[34]

Vedic texts

[edit]

In Vedic literature—which includes the four Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads—the name Shri appears frequently, while Lakshmi becomes more prominent only in later texts. The Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE) alone mentions Shri approximately 130 times, always in relation to prosperity, health, fortune, and radiance. In the Yajurveda’s various samhitas—Taittiriya, Kathaka, Maitrayani, and Vajasaneyi—Shri is mentioned thirteen times. While Shri and Lakshmi are considered to be identical in most of these attestations, a notable exception appears in the Vajasaneyi Samhita (31.22), which states “Śrīś ca te Lakṣmīś ca patnyau” (“Shri and Lakshmi are [his] two wives”), portraying them as distinct yet unified consorts of Vishnu, but without delineating any substantive difference between the two.[34]

One of the earliest dedicated hymns to the fully-personified goddess is the Shri Sukta, found in the khila (appendix) of the fifth mandala of the Rigveda. Though not part of the main body of the Rigvedic text, the Shri Sukta is a significant early theological development, possibly pre-dating Buddhism. The hymn comprises fifteen verses: the first two and last three invoke Lakshmi, while the central verses (3–12) are addressed to Shri. The hymn portrays the goddess as golden-hued, richly adorned with gold and silver ornaments, seated on a chariot, and associated with elephants, horses, and especially the lotus. She is invoked as the bestower of wealth, fame, food, and material wellbeing. Importantly, she is also called upon to dispel her antithetical counterpart Alakshmi, who embodies misfortune, poverty, and hunger. The distinction between Lakshmi and Alakshmi becomes a recurring theme in later texts, reinforcing Lakshmi’s association with auspiciousness and plenitude.[34]

In Atharva Veda, transcribed about 1000 BCE, Lakshmi evolves into a complex concept with plural manifestations. Book 7, Chapter 115 of Atharva Veda describes the plurality, asserting that a hundred Lakshmis are born with the body of a mortal at birth, some good, Punya ('virtuous') and auspicious, while others bad, paapi ('evil') and unfortunate. The good are welcomed, while the bad are urged to leave.[33] The concept and spirit of Lakshmi and her association with fortune and the good is significant enough that Atharva Veda mentions it in multiple books: for example, in Book 12, Chapter 5 as Punya Lakshmi.[66] In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, an auspicious sign, good luck, good fortune, prosperity, success, and happiness.[2][34]

Despite the extensive praise of Shri-Lakshmi’s qualities, the early Vedic texts offer relatively little regarding her mythological origin. A more developed narrative appears in the Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri (Lakshmi) is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of the universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Shri emerges from Prajapati, after his intense meditation on the creation of life and nature of the universe. Shri is described as a resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy and powers.[33] The gods are bewitched, desire her, and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, talents, and gifts. Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that men should not kill women and that they can seek her gifts without violence.[67] The gods then approach Lakshmi. Agni gets food, Soma gets kingly authority, Varuna gets imperial authority, Mitra acquires martial energy, Indra gets force, Brihaspati gets priestly authority, Savitri acquires dominion, Pushan gets splendour, Saraswati takes nourishment and Tvashtri gets forms.[33] However, her presence is conditional and merit-based—she allies only with those worthy of her gifts. As a result, she moves among various divine and semi-divine figures, including Soma, Dharma, Indra, and even virtuous demons such as Bali and Prahlada. This portrayal of her shifting allegiance gives rise to the notion of her as an inconstant force, attaching herself to virtue and desert rather than personal loyalty. Ultimately, Shri settles as the steadfast consort of Vishnu, establishing the lasting association that defines Lakshmi in later devotional and mythological traditions.[34][2]

Epics

[edit]

In the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm, and splendor.[2] In another Hindu legend about the creation of the universe as described in Ramayana,[68] Lakshmi springs with other precious things from the foam of the ocean of milk when it is churned by the gods and demons for the recovery of Amṛta. She appeared with a lotus in her hand and so she is also called Padmā.[2][69]: 108–11  Some scholars propose a theory that Sri and Lakshmi may have originally been different goddesses, who merged into one figure.[70]

Sita, the female protagonist of the Ramayana and her husband, the god-king Rama are considered as avatars of Lakshmi and Vishnu, respectively.

In the Mahabharata, Draupadi is described as an incarnation of Sri (Lakshmi).[71] A later interpolation attempts to reinterpret Draupadi as Shachi, associating Lakshmi instead with Rukmini, the consort of Krishna, who is an incarnation of Vishnu. However, scholars affirm that the original tradition identifies Sri with Draupadi, as evidenced in the Critical Edition.[72]

Upanishads

[edit]

Shakta Upanishads are dedicated to the Tridevi of goddesses—Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati. Saubhagyalakshmi Upanishad describes the qualities, characteristics, and powers of Lakshmi.[73] In the second part of the Upanishad, the emphasis shifts to the use of yoga and transcendence from material craving to achieve spiritual knowledge and self-realization, the true wealth.[74][75] Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad synonymously uses Sri to describe Lakshmi.[73]

Stotram and sutras

[edit]

Numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite hymns dedicated to Lakshmi.[35] She is a major goddess in Puranas and Itihasa of Hinduism. In ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. For example:[35]

Part of a series on
Vaishnavism
Closeup of Vishnu, seated in the lotus position on a lotus. From depiction of the poet Jayadeva bowing to Vishnu, Gouache on paper Pahari, The very picture of devotion, bare-bodied, head bowed, legs crossed and hands folded, Jayadeva stands at left, with the implements of worship placed before the lotus-seat of Vishnu who sits there, blessing the poet.
Supreme deity
Vishnu / Krishna / Rama
Important deities
Dashavatara
Other forms
Consorts
Related
Holy scriptures
Puranas
Sampradayas
Others
Teachers—acharyas
Related traditions

Every woman is an embodiment of you.
You exist as little girls in their childhood,
As young women in their youth
And as elderly women in their old age.

— Sri Kamala Stotram

Every woman is an emanation of you.

— Sri Daivakrta Laksmi Stotram

Ancient prayers dedicated to Lakshmi seek both material and spiritual wealth in prayers.[35]

Through illusion,
A person can become disconnected,
From his higher self,
Wandering about from place to place,
Bereft of clear thought,
Lost in destructive behavior.
It matters not how much truth,
May shine forth in the world,
Illuminating the entire creation,
For one cannot acquire wisdom,
Unless it is experienced,
Through the opening on the heart....

Puranas

[edit]

Lakshmi is described prominently in Puranas of Hinduism. Vishnu Purana, in particular, dedicates many sections to her and also refers to her as Sri.[76] J. A. B. van Buitenen translates passages describing Lakshmi in Vishnu Purana:[76]

Sri, loyal to Vishnu, is the mother of the world. Vishnu is the meaning, Sri is the speech. She is the conduct, he the behavior. Vishnu is knowledge, she the insight. He is dharma, she the virtuous action. She is the earth, the earth's upholder. She is contentment, he the satisfaction. She wishes, he is the desire. Sri is the sky, Vishnu the Self of everything. He is the Sun, she the light of the Sun. He is the ocean, she is the shore.

Subhasita, genomic and didactic literature

[edit]

Lakshmi, along with Parvati and Saraswati, is a subject of extensive Subhashita, genomic and didactic literature of India.[77] Composed in the 1st millennium BCE through the 16th century CE, they are short poems, proverbs, couplets, or aphorisms in Sanskrit written in a precise meter. They sometimes take the form of a dialogue between Lakshmi and Vishnu or highlight the spiritual message in Vedas and ethical maxims from Hindu Epics through Lakshmi.[77] An example Subhashita is Puranartha Samgraha, compiled by Vekataraya in South India, where Lakshmi and Vishnu discuss niti ('right, moral conduct') and rajaniti ('statesmanship' or 'right governance')—covering in 30 chapters and ethical and moral questions about personal, social and political life.[77]: 22 

Manifestations and aspects

[edit]
Sculpture of Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi at Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu

Inside temples, Lakshmi is often shown together with Vishnu. In certain parts of India, Lakshmi plays a special role as the mediator between her husband Vishnu and his worldly devotees. When asking Vishnu for grace or forgiveness, the devotees often approach him through the intermediary presence of Lakshmi.[78] She is also the personification of spiritual fulfillment. Lakshmi embodies the spiritual world, also known as Vaikuntha, the abode of Lakshmi and Vishnu (collectively called Lakshmi Narayana). Lakshmi is the embodiment of the creative energy of Vishnu,[79] and primordial Prakriti who creates the universe.[80]

An early 20th-century painting depicting Vishnu resting on Ananta-Shesha, with Lakshmi massaging his feet.

According to Garuda Purana, Lakshmi is considered as Prakriti (Mahalakshmi) and is identified with three forms — Sri, Bhu and Durga. The three forms consist of Satva ('goodness'),[2] rajas, and tamas ('darkness') gunas,[81] and assists Vishnu (Purusha) in creation, preservation and destruction of the entire universe. Durga's form represents the power to fight, conquer and punish the demons and anti-gods.

Part of a series on
Shaktism
Deities
Mahadevi (Supreme)
Scriptures and texts
other texts
Schools
Vidya margam
Kula margam
Scholars
Practices
Festivals and temples
Regional variations
Hinduism portal

In the Lakshmi Tantra and Lakshmi Sahasranama of Skanda Purana, Lakshmi is given the status of the primordial goddess. According to these texts, Durga and the other forms, such as Mahalakshmi, Mahakali and Mahasaraswati and all the Shaktis that came out of all gods such as Matrikas and Mahavidya,[82] are all various forms of Goddess Lakshmi.[83] In Lakshmi Tantra, Lakshmi tells Indra that she got the name Durga after killing an asura named Durgama.[84] Indologists and authors Chitralekha Singh and Prem Nath says, "Narada Purana describes the powerful forms of Lakshmi as Durga, Mahakali, Bhadrakali, Chandi, Maheshwari, Mahalakshmi, Vaishnavi and Andreye".[85]

Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Parvati are typically conceptualized as distinct in most of India, but in states such as West Bengal and Odisha, they are regionally believed to be forms of Durga.[86] In Hindu Bengali culture, Lakshmi, along with Saraswati, are seen as the daughters of Durga. They are worshipped during Durga Puja.[87]

In South India, Lakshmi is seen in two forms, Sridevi and Bhudevi, both at the sides of Venkateshwara, a form of Vishnu. Bhudevi represents the material world or energy, called the Apara Prakriti, or Mother Earth, while Sridevi is the spiritual world or energy called the Prakriti.[5][88] According to Lakshmi Tantra, Nila Devi, another manifestation or incarnation of Lakshmi, is the third consort of Vishnu.[89][90] Each goddess of this triad—Sridevi, Bhudevi, and Nila Devi—is mentioned in the Śrī Sūkta, Bhu Sūkta, and Nila Sūkta, respectively.[91][92][93] This threefold goddess can be found, for example, in Sri Bhu Neela Sahita Temple near Dwaraka Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh, and in Adinath Swami Temple in Tamil Nadu.[94] In many parts of the region, Andal is considered as an incarnation of Lakshmi.[95]

Ashtalakshmi - Eight forms of Lakshmi

Ashta Lakshmi (Sanskrit: अष्टलक्ष्मी, Aṣṭalakṣmī, 'eight Lakshmis') is a group of eight secondary manifestations of Lakshmi. The Ashta Lakshmi presides over eight sources of wealth and thus represents the eight powers of Shri Lakshmi. Temples dedicated to Ashta Lakshmi are found in Tamil Nadu, such as Ashtalakshmi Kovil near Chennai and many other states of India.[96]

Ashta Lakshmi
Adi Lakshmi The First manifestation of Lakshmi
Dhanya Lakshmi Granary Wealth
Veera Lakshmi Wealth of Courage
Gaja Lakshmi Elephants spraying water, the wealth of fertility, rains, and food.[97]
Santana Lakshmi Wealth of Continuity, Progeny
Vidya Lakshmi Wealth of Knowledge and Wisdom
Vijaya Lakshmi Wealth of Victory
Dhana / Aishwarya Lakshmi Wealth of prosperity and fortune

Creation and legends

[edit]
A painting depicting Samudra Manthana, with Lakshmi emerging with the lotus in her hands.

Devas (gods) and asuras (demons) were both mortal at one time in Hinduism. Amrita, the divine nectar that grants immortality, could only be obtained by churning Kshira Sagara ('Ocean of Milk'). The devas and asuras both sought immortality and decided to churn the Kshira Sagara with Mount Mandhara. The Samudra Manthana commenced with the devas on one side and the asuras on the other. Vishnu incarnated as Kurma, the tortoise, and a mountain was placed on the tortoise as a churning pole. Vasuki, the great venom-spewing serpent-god, was wrapped around the mountain and used to churn the ocean. A host of divine celestial objects came up during the churning. Along with them emerged the goddess Lakshmi. In some versions, she is said to be the daughter of the sea god since she emerged from the sea.[98]

In Garuda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana, Lakshmi is said to have been born as the daughter of the divine sage Bhrigu and his wife Khyati and was named Bhargavi. According to Vishnu Purana, the universe was created when the devas and asuras churned the cosmic Kshira Sagara. Lakshmi came out of the ocean, bearing a lotus, along with the divine cow Kamadhenu, Varuni, the Parijat tree, the Apsaras, Chandra (the moon), and Dhanvantari with Amrita ('nectar of immortality'). When she appeared, she had a choice to go to the Devas or the Asuras. She chose the Devas' side and among thirty deities, she chose to be with Vishnu. Thereafter, in all three worlds, the lotus-bearing goddess was celebrated.[76]

According to another legend, she emerges during the creation of universe, floating over the water on the expanded petals of a lotus flower; she is also variously regarded as wife of Dharma, mother of Kāma, sister or mother of Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ, wife of Dattatreya, one of the nine Shaktis of Viṣṇu, a manifestation of Prakṛti as identified with Dākshāyaṇī in Bharatasrama and as Sita, wife of Rama.[2][69]: 103–12 

Worship and festivals

[edit]

Festivals

[edit]

Many Hindus worship Lakshmi on Deepavali (Diwali), the festival of lights.[99] It is celebrated in autumn, typically October or November every year.[100] The festival spiritually signifies the victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, good over evil and hope over despair.[101]

Deepavali celebrations include puja (prayers) to Lakshmi and Ganesha. Lakshmi is of the Vaishnavism tradition, while Ganesha of the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism.[102][103]

On the night of Deepavali, Hindus light up diyas (lamps and candles) inside and outside their home, and participate in family puja (prayers) typically to Lakshmi.[citation needed] Deepavali also marks a major shopping period, since Lakshmi connotes auspiciousness, wealth and prosperity.[104]

A very sacred day for the worship of Goddess Lakshmi falls on Chaitra Shukla Panchami, also called, Lakshmi Panchami, Shri Panchami, Kalpadi and Shri Vrata. As this worship is in the first week of the Hindu new year, by Hindu calendar, it is considered very auspicious.[105] Varalakshmi Vratam is celebrated by married Hindu women to pray for the well-being of their husbands.[106]

Gaja Lakshmi Puja is another autumn festival celebrated on Sharad Purnima in many parts of India on the full-moon day in the month of Ashvin (October).[29] Sharad Purnima, also called Kojaagari Purnima or Kuanr Purnima, is a harvest festival marking the end of monsoon season. There is a traditional celebration of the moon called the Kaumudi celebration, Kaumudi meaning moonlight.[107] On Sharad Purnima night, goddess Lakshmi is thanked and worshipped for the harvests. Vaibhav Lakshmi Vrata is observed on Friday for prosperity.[108]

Hymns

[edit]

Numerous hymns, prayers, shlokas, stotra, songs, and legends dedicated to Lakshmi are recited during the ritual worship of the goddess.[35] These include:[109]

Major Temples

[edit]

Some temples dedicated to Goddess Lakshmi are:

Archaeology

[edit]
Greek-influenced statue of Gaja Lakshmi, holding lotus and cornucopia, flanked by two elephants and two lions. From Kashmir, 6th century CE.

A representation of the goddess as Gaja Lakshmi or Lakshmi flanked by two elephants spraying her with water, is one of the most frequently found in archaeological sites.[25][26] An ancient sculpture of Gaja Lakshmi (from Sonkh site at Mathura) dates to the pre-Kushan Empire era.[25] Atranjikhera site in modern Uttar Pradesh has yielded terracotta plaque with images of Lakshmi dating to the 2nd century BCE. Other archaeological sites with ancient Lakshmi terracotta figurines from the 3rd century BCE include Vaisali, Sravasti, Kausambi, Campa, and Candraketugadh.[26]

The goddess Lakshmi is frequently found in ancient coins of various Hindu kingdoms from Afghanistan to India. Gaja Lakshmi has been found on coins of Scytho-Parthian kings Azes II and Azilises; she also appears on Shunga Empire king Jyesthamitra era coins, both dating to 1st millennium BCE. Coins from 1st through 4th century CE found in various locations in India such as Ayodhya, Mathura, Ujjain, Sanchi, Bodh Gaya, Kanauj, all feature Lakshmi.[114] Similarly, ancient Greco-Indian gems and seals with images of Lakshmi have been found, estimated to be from 1st-millennium BCE.[115]

A 1400-year-old rare granite sculpture of Lakshmi has been recovered at the Waghama village along Jehlum in Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir.[116]

The Pompeii Lakshmi, a statuette supposedly thought to be of Lakshmi found in Pompeii, Italy, dates to before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE.[117]

Outside Hinduism

[edit]

Jainism

[edit]
Gaja Lakshmi at Shravanabelagola Temple, Karnataka.

Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples.[118][119] Some Jain temples also depict Sri Lakshmi as a goddess of artha ('wealth') and kama ('pleasure'). For example, she is exhibited with Vishnu in Parshvanatha Jain Temple at the Khajuraho Monuments of Madhya Pradesh,[120] where she is shown pressed against Vishnu's chest, while Vishnu cups a breast in his palm. The presence of Vishnu-Lakshmi iconography in a Jain temple built near the Hindu temples of Khajuraho, suggests the sharing and acceptance of Lakshmi across a spectrum of Indian religions.[120] This commonality is reflected in the praise of Lakshmi found in the Jain text Kalpa Sūtra.[121]

Buddhism

[edit]
The Japanese Kishijoten is adapted from Lakshmi.

In Buddhism, Lakshmi has been viewed as a goddess of abundance and fortune, and is represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism.[122][123] In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal, and Southeast Asia, Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics and attributes of the Hindu Goddess, with minor iconographic differences.[124]

Ming dynasty (1368-1644) statue of Jixiang Tiannü, who is Lakshmi as known in Chinese Buddhism, at Shanhua Temple in Datong, China

In Chinese Buddhism, Lakshmi is referred to as either Gōngdétiān (功德天, lit "Meritorious god" ) or Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ (吉祥天女, lit "Auspicious goddess") and is the goddess of fortune and prosperity. She is regarded as the sister of Píshāméntiān (毗沙門天), or Vaiśravaṇa, one of the Four Heavenly Kings. She is also regarded as one of the twenty-four protective deities, and her image is frequently enshrined in the Mahavira Hall of most Chinese Buddhist monasteries together with the other deities. Her mantra, the Sri Devi Dharani (Chinese: 大吉祥天女咒; pinyin: Dà Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ Zhòu) is classified as one of the Ten Small Mantras (Chinese: 十小咒; pinyin: Shí xiǎo zhòu), which are a collection of dharanis that are commonly recited in Chinese Buddhist temples during morning liturgical services.[125]

The Dharani is as follows:

Namo buddhāya, Namo dharmāya, Namah samghāya, Namah Śrī Mahādevīye, Tadyathā Om paripūraņa cāre samanta darśane. Mahā vihāra gate samanta vidhamane. Mahā kārya pratişţhāpane, sarvārtha sādhane, supratipūri ayatna dharmatā. Mahā vikurvite, mahā maitrī upasamhite, mahārşi susamgŗhīte samantārtha anupālane svāhā.

In Japanese Buddhism, Lakshmi is known as Kishijoten (吉祥天, 'Auspicious Heavens') and is also the goddess of fortune and prosperity.[126] Like in China, Kishijoten is considered the sister of Bishamon (毘沙門, also known as Tamon or Bishamon-ten), who protects human life, fights evil, and brings good fortune. In ancient and medieval Japan, Kishijoten was the goddess worshiped for luck and prosperity, particularly on behalf of children. Kishijoten was also the guardian goddess of Geishas.

In Tibetan Buddhism, Lakshmi is an important deity, especially in the Gelug School. She has both peaceful and wrathful forms; the latter form is known as Palden Lhamo, Shri Devi Dudsol Dokam, or Kamadhatvishvari, and is the principal female protector of (Gelug) Tibetan Buddhism and of Lhasa, Tibet.[127]

While Lakshmi and Vaiśravaṇa are found in ancient Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature, their roots have been traced to deities in Hinduism.[126]

Lakshmi is closely linked to Dewi Sri, who is worshipped in Bali as the goddess of fertility and agriculture.

Incarnations

[edit]

Throughout various texts and scriptures, Lakshmi incarnated as the following:

  • Vedavati – Vedavati is the possessor of the Vedas and is also considered the previous birth of goddess Sita.[128]
  • Bhumi – Bhumi is the goddess of the Earth and the consort of Vishnu's 3rd avatar Varaha.[129] She is regarded as the mother of Narakasura, Mangala and Sita.[130]
  • Varahi – Varahi is the female energy and consort of Varaha. She is the commander of the Matrikas.[131]
  • Pratyangira – Pratyangira is the consort of Narasimha and the pure manifestation of the wrath of Tripurasundari.[132]
  • Namagiri Thayar – Namagiri Thayar is the consort of Narasimha, 4th avatar of Vishnu.[133]
  • Dharani – Dharani is the wife of sage Parashurama, the 6th avatar of Vishnu.[134]
  • Sita – Sita is the female protagonist of the Hindu epic Ramayana and the consort of Rama, Vishnu's 7th avatar.[135] She is the chief goddess of the Rama-centric Hindu traditions and is the goddess of beauty, devotion and ploughshare.[136]
  • Radha – Radha is the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion and devotion.[137] She is the eternal and chief consort of Krishna and she is also the personification of Mūlaprakriti, who is the feminine counterpart and internal potency (hladini shakti) of Krishna, Vishnu's 8th avatar.[138]
  • Rukmini – Rukmini is the first and supreme queen of Krishna. She is the goddess of fortune and the queen of Dvaraka.[139][140]
  • Jambavati – Jambavati is the second queen of Krishna.[141]
  • Satyabhama – Satyabhama is the third queen of Krishna and personification of goddess Bhumi.[142]
  • Kalindi – Kalindi is the fourth queen of Krishna and is worshipped as river goddess Yamuna.[143]
  • Nagnajiti – Nagnajiti is the fifth queen of Krishna and the personification of Niladevi.[144]
  • Mitravinda – Mitravinda is the sixth queen of Krishna.[145]
  • Lakshmana – Lakshmana is the seventh queen of Krishna.[146]
  • Bhadra – Bhadra is the eighth queen of Krishna (varies) .[147]
  • Madri – according to Harivamsa Madri is the eighth queen of Krishna.[148]
  • Gopis – Gopis are considered as the consorts and devotees of Krishna, and expansion of goddess Radha, among all the Gopi devotees of Radha Krishna, Lalita is the most prominent.[149]
  • Junior wives of Krishna – They were several thousand women, Krishna married after rescuing them from the demon Narakasura, Rohini was considered the chief queen of them all.[150]
  • Revati – Revati is the goddess of Opulence and the wife of Balrama, who is considered as Vishnu's avatar in some traditions.[151]
  • Vatikā – Vatikā is the wife of sage Vyasa, who is considered as a partial incarnation of Vishnu.[152]
  • Padmavati – Padmavati is the consort of Venkateswara, an avatar of Vishnu. She is the goddess of Tirupati.[153]
  • Bhargavi – Bhargavi is the daughter of sage Bhrigu and his wife Khyati.[154]
  • Vaishno Devi – Vaishnavi is seen as the potency of Vishnu and is worshipped as a combined avatar of Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and Mahasarasvati.[155]
  • Ranganayaki – Ranganayaki is the chief consort of Ranganatha, an avatar of Vishnu. She is the goddess of Srirangam.[156]
  • Andal – Andal is the consort of Ranganatha and the personification of Bhumi. She is the only female Alvar.[157]
  • Archi – Archi is the consort of Prithu, an avatar of Vishnu.[158]
[edit]
  • Lakshmi Devi idol in Sanctum of temple at Doddagaddavalli, in Hassan District, Karnataka India.
    Lakshmi Devi idol in Sanctum of temple at Doddagaddavalli, in Hassan District, Karnataka India.
  • Self emerged idol of goddess Lakshmi with Srinivasa in Kallur Mahalakshmi temple Kolhapur
    Self emerged idol of goddess Lakshmi with Srinivasa in Kallur Mahalakshmi temple [Second Kolhapur
  • Mahalaxmi temple Sulebhavi., Local form of goddess lakshmi
    Mahalaxmi temple Sulebhavi., Local form of goddess lakshmi
  • Miniature painting of Vishnu and Lakshmi
    Miniature painting of Vishnu and Lakshmi
  • Oil on canvas by Raja Ravi Varma
    Oil on canvas by Raja Ravi Varma

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lakshmi

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, prosperity, fortune, beauty, and fertility, revered as the divine consort and shakti (energy) of the preserver deity Vishnu, embodying both material abundance and spiritual grace in Vaishnava traditions. Her origins trace back to Vedic literature, where she first appears in the Rigveda Khila-sukta as an abstract concept of auspicious fortune (śrī), evolving into a personified deity associated with prosperity and the banishment of misfortune in hymns like the Śrī-sukta. In the epics, Lakshmi is symbolically linked to Vishnu's incarnations, such as Sita in the Ramayana—praised for her beauty akin to śrī—and more narratively in the Mahabharata, where she emerges from the churning of the ocean (samudramanthana) to grant cosmic abundance and select Vishnu as her consort. The Puranas, particularly the Vishnu Purana, elaborate her mythology: born first as the daughter of sage Bhrigu and later manifesting from the milk ocean during its churning by gods and demons, radiant and seated on a lotus, she reclines eternally on Vishnu's breast and accompanies him in all avatars, such as Rukmini with Krishna. Depicted with four arms symbolizing the purusharthas (kāma, artha, dharma, mokṣa), adorned in a red sari with gold jewelry, and often flanked by elephants pouring water (as Gajalakshmi), she holds lotuses representing purity and fertility while bestowing coins of wealth. Lakshmi's worship is central to festivals like Diwali, where homes are cleansed and lamps lit to invite her blessings, and during Navaratri's middle nights, emphasizing her role in nurturing both worldly success and liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Known by epithets such as Padma (lotus), Kamala (lotus-dweller), and Śrī, she signifies the interdependence of divine preservation and prosperity, ensuring the universe's fertility and moral order across Hindu scriptures and practices.

Etymology and Epithets

Etymology

The name Lakṣmī derives from the Sanskrit root lakṣ (लक्ष्), meaning "to perceive," "observe," or "aim at," which evokes the idea of a goal or auspicious mark associated with wealth and prosperity. This root connects the term to concepts of observation and attainment, symbolizing fortune as something discerned or targeted in life. In classical Sanskrit lexicography, such as the Amarakośa, lakṣmī is defined as embodying riches, success, and beauty, extending from the root's sense of a visible sign of abundance. In , lakṣmī appears as an abstract noun denoting a "sign," "token," or "auspicious mark," rather than a deified figure, as seen in Rig Veda 10.71.2, where it refers to indicators of fortune or kindred prosperity. According to Yāska's (iv, 10), an early etymological text, lakṣmī signifies both favorable and unfavorable omens, highlighting its initial role as an impersonal indicator of impending wealth or misfortune. Over time, in post-Vedic classical Sanskrit, the term evolved to emphasize positive auspiciousness (śrī or good fortune), with lakṣmī increasingly linked to material and spiritual prosperity, as reflected in texts like the Mahābhārata and . By the classical period, the abstract lakṣmī fully transitioned to a personified divinity, representing not just observed signs of prosperity but the divine bestower of it in Hindu theology.

Epithets

Lakshmi is commonly addressed by the epithet Shri, signifying auspiciousness, radiance, and prosperity, as described in the Sri Sukta of the Rigveda where she embodies splendor and wealth. Other primary epithets include Padma (lotus) and Kamala (lotus-dweller), which highlight her association with purity and fertility, often invoked in Vedic hymns to denote her emergence from the cosmic ocean. As Vishnu-Priya (beloved of Vishnu), she is portrayed as the devoted consort in Puranic narratives, emphasizing her role in sustaining cosmic order alongside Vishnu. Epithets are often categorized thematically to reflect Lakshmi's multifaceted attributes. Those denoting wealth include Dhana-Lakshmi (goddess of monetary prosperity) and Dhanya-Lakshmi (goddess of agricultural abundance), which underscore her dominion over material and sustenance-based fortunes in devotional contexts. Epithets related to beauty and grace, such as Rama (the delightful one), appear in texts like the Vishnu Purana, where she is celebrated for her enchanting form and moral virtues like Kirti (fame) and Dhriti (fortitude). Additional themes encompass victory (Vijaya-Lakshmi) and knowledge (Vidya-Lakshmi), illustrating her comprehensive influence on human endeavors. In the Puranas, such as the Bhagavata Purana and Matsya Purana, these epithets are invoked during descriptions of her birth from the churning of the ocean (Samudra Manthan), where Gaja-Lakshmi (elephant-flanked Lakshmi) symbolizes royal abundance and is bathed by divine elephants. The Skanda Purana further employs Rama and Padma to depict her as the daughter of sage Bhrigu, highlighting her eternal companionship with Vishnu and her role as Jagarmata (universal mother). These scriptural usages imply Lakshmi's versatility, from bestowing prosperity to guiding ethical conduct. Regional variations in epithets are prominent in South Indian traditions, where the (eightfold Lakshmi) framework integrates epithets like Adi-Lakshmi (primeval form) and Santana-Lakshmi (progeny-bestowing), worshipped collectively to invoke holistic well-being. In contrast, North Indian texts like the favor abstract epithets such as Padmatalasthita (lotus-seated) to link her to epic heroines like , reinforcing her symbolic presence in human narratives.

Iconography and Symbolism

Visual Depictions

Lakshmi is typically depicted in as a graceful seated or standing upon a fully bloomed lotus flower, embodying serenity and elevation above worldly concerns. She is most commonly portrayed with four arms, two of which hold lotus buds, while the lower right hand is extended in the gesture of fearlessness and the lower left in the of boon-granting, occasionally pouring streams of gold coins to signify . In some regional variations, she appears with two arms, emphasizing simplicity, as seen in eastern Indian sculptures where she holds a or lotuses. A prominent form known as Gaja-Lakshmi features the goddess flanked by two elephants showering her with water from their trunks, a motif symbolizing royal abundance and fertility that appears in temple carvings and standalone icons. Attendants or celestial figures occasionally surround her in architectural reliefs, such as those in medieval temple panels, enhancing the scene of opulence. Early representations of Lakshmi trace back to aniconic forms on coins from the BCE, featuring symbolic elements like and lotuses without a figure, evolving into fully anthropomorphic depictions by the period around the 4th century CE. In Gupta-era sculptures and coinage, she is shown standing or seated on a lotus amid foliage, with pouring water, marking a shift to more detailed and divine human forms that standardized her as Vishnu's consort. Depictions vary across historical periods in attire, jewelry, and skin tone, reflecting regional artistic styles. In the Gupta period, Lakshmi is adorned with elaborate earrings (kundalas) and a jeweled waistband, her skin rendered in a golden hue to evoke divine radiance and . During the Chola era (9th–13th centuries), bronze sculptures portray her in standing or seated postures with intricate jewelry, including necklaces and armlets, often in a reddish-gold from the metal, while her form emphasizes fluid lines and devotional poise. Northern frequently dresses her in red attire, contrasting with the golden or tone prevalent in southern bronzes.

Symbolic Attributes

The lotus flower, a central in Lakshmi's , embodies purity as it emerges untainted from , signifying the transcendence of spiritual clarity over worldly impurities. This attribute also represents , evoking the abundance that arises from fertile, post-monsoon , much like rice harvests that sustain communities. Furthermore, the lotus denotes spiritual enlightenment, illustrating the soul's journey toward divine realization and detachment from material attachments. In the Gaja-Lakshmi form, elephants and water symbolize royal abundance and fertility, with the elephants—often depicted as divine carriers like Indra's —pouring water to signify the perpetual flow of prosperity and life-giving rains essential for agricultural wealth. This imagery underscores Lakshmi's role in bestowing well-being and good fortune, linking natural fertility to societal opulence and divine blessings. Coins, frequently held by Lakshmi, denote material and the continuous outpouring of , emphasizing and the ethical of resources to foster communal . The , as her , represents wisdom and vigilance, symbolizing the discernment needed to navigate prosperity even in obscurity, such as earning through nocturnal efforts or avoiding the pitfalls of greed. These elements collectively highlight Lakshmi's dual emphasis on tangible riches and prudent insight. Lakshmi's association with symbolizes the harmony between fortune and preservation, where her prosperity sustains his role in maintaining cosmic balance and , ensuring that wealth serves protective and ethical purposes rather than chaos. Epithets like "Padma," derived from the lotus, further reinforce this symbolic purity and abundance in her divine attributes.

Historical Evolution

Vedic Origins

In the Rigveda, the foundational Vedic text composed around 1500–1200 BCE, Lakshmi's conceptual precursor appears as the abstract term "śrī," signifying splendor, glory, , and royal majesty, without any as a . This impersonal quality is frequently attributed to gods such as , , and Uṣas, evoking radiance and fortune in hymns like RV 1.1.9, where is said to possess śrī as a luminous excellence, and RV 10.91.5, which describes divine forms brilliant with śrī akin to . Etymologically, śrī derives from the verbal root √śrī, implying "to shine" or "to diffuse," tying it to notions of luminous that enhance cosmic order and human endeavor. Throughout the 's 1,028 hymns, śrī occurs over 130 times, always as an attribute rather than an independent entity, underscoring its role in poetic invocations of abundance and power. References to śrī in the Atharvaveda and Yajurveda further embed it within rituals and hymns focused on prosperity, maintaining its non-anthropomorphic character while linking it to practical invocations of fortune. In the Atharvaveda, passages such as AV 4.8.1 and AV 7.115.1 portray śrī as a enveloping force in royal consecration rites, where the king is "clothed" in this splendor to ensure wealth and sovereignty, as seen in spells for protection and abundance. Similarly, the Yajurveda's Taittirīya Saṃhitā includes śrī in sacrificial contexts, such as TS 1.8.14 and TS 2.5.3, where it is ritually invoked alongside qualities like tejas (brilliance) to amplify prosperity during ceremonies like the rājasūya. These later Samhitās, dating to circa 1200–900 BCE, treat śrī as an abstract potency summoned through mantras to foster material and regal success, without distinct mythological narratives. A subtle shift toward deification occurs in the late Vedic Brāhmaṇa texts, where śrī begins to emerge as a rudimentary while remaining tied to efficacy. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, for instance, depicts śrī's origin from Prajāpati's (ascetic heat) in ŚB 11.4.3.1, portraying her as a feminine power born to confer and renewal, as in the aśvamedha and punarabhiṣeka s (ŚB 13.2.6.7). The Aitareya Brāhmaṇa echoes this in AB 8.1 and 8.6, associating śrī with unction liquids that symbolize prosperity's bestowal on monarchs. Composed between 900–500 BCE, these prose commentaries mark śrī's transition from mere force to an invocable entity in Vedic sacrifices, aimed at securing abundance, yet devoid of any iconographic descriptions or visual symbolism, emphasizing instead her intangible invocation for prosperity.

Post-Vedic Developments

In the post-Vedic period, spanning roughly 500 BCE to 200 CE, Lakshmi began to emerge as a personified goddess distinct from her earlier abstract Vedic associations with prosperity and fortune. This transformation is evident in texts like the Sri Sukta, a hymn appended to the Rig Veda, which portrays her as the embodiment of abundance, fertility, and auspiciousness, often invoked for the removal of misfortune and the bestowal of wealth. Here, Lakshmi is depicted residing on a lotus, surrounded by elephants showering her with water, symbolizing royal power and cosmic harmony, marking a shift toward devotional personification. The Sri Sukta further solidifies Lakshmi's role as the consort of , positioning her as his eternal companion who shares in his divine attributes of preservation and sustenance. This pairing underscores her as the source of material and spiritual , with the addressing her directly as the bestower of fame, nourishment, and over , thereby elevating her from a mere attribute to a relational integral to Vaishnava theology. Such portrayals in late Vedic appendices facilitated her integration into broader devotional practices, emphasizing her benevolent and nurturing essence. Didactic texts of the period further shaped Lakshmi's identity as the of , portraying her as the protector of domestic harmony, fertility, and within the family unit. In these works, she is invoked to ensure the well-being of the home (griha), emphasizing her role in fostering balanced living through righteous , thereby embedding her in everyday ethical and devotional life. Epithets like Sri and Kamala, denoting auspiciousness and lotuses, proliferated in these texts to evoke her multifaceted benevolence.

Epics and Puranas

In the Mahabharata, Lakshmi is depicted as the eternal consort of Vishnu, emerging from the churning of the ocean of milk (Amritamanthana) alongside other divine entities, where she embodies wealth, prosperity, beauty, and grace that underpin the epic's exploration of dharma in contexts of warfare, kingship, and moral order. Her presence symbolizes the auspicious fortune that favors righteous rulers and warriors, as seen in narratives where prosperity aligns with ethical governance, such as the Pandavas' eventual triumph reflecting divine favor. Lakshmi is also associated with key female figures like Draupadi, who manifests her qualities of loveliness and splendor, reinforcing her role in sustaining cosmic balance through Vishnu's preservatory function. In the Ramayana, Lakshmi appears through subtle references as the divine archetype underlying Sita, portraying her as Vishnu's consort in the form of Rama's ideal wife, who exemplifies devotion, purity, and resilience as aspects of prosperity and harmony. Sita is likened to (an early epithet for Lakshmi) in descriptions of her beauty and grace, such as in the Bala Kanda (1.77.28), linking her to the goddess's benevolent influence without explicit emergence myths like the ocean churning. This portrayal establishes Lakshmi's subtle doctrinal presence as the supportive energy () enabling Vishnu's avatars to uphold in familial and societal ideals. The expand Lakshmi's mythology extensively, particularly in the , where detailed narratives establish her as the primordial of , emerging from the sea of milk during the gods' churning to restore prosperity to the three worlds after Indra's leads to her temporary absence. In this text (1.9), she is born first as the daughter of and but fully manifests as Vishnu's eternal companion, reclining on his breast and accompanying him in all incarnations—such as Padma with the dwarf , with , and with Krishna—symbolizing her indispensable role in creation, preservation, and the bestowal of wealth, knowledge, and liberation. The , a 16th-century Oriya text attributed to Balaram Das, further develops her narratives by emphasizing egalitarian aspects, portraying her as a compassionate who aids the marginalized and reinforces her as Vishnu's dynamic power. Doctrinal developments in later Puranas, such as the Devi Bhagavata and Markandeya Purana, introduce the concept of Ashta Lakshmi, conceptualizing her in eight forms to represent multifaceted prosperity beyond material wealth, including spiritual and ethical dimensions. These forms—Adi Lakshmi (primordial liberation), Dhana Lakshmi (monetary abundance), Dhanya Lakshmi (agricultural bounty), Gaja Lakshmi (power and royalty), Santana Lakshmi (progeny), Veera Lakshmi (courage), Vidya Lakshmi (knowledge), and Vijaya Lakshmi (victory)—illustrate her comprehensive shakti in sustaining dharma and human fulfillment, evolving from her epic portrayals into a structured theological framework.

Manifestations and Forms

Primary Manifestations

Lakshmi's primordial manifestation, Adi Lakshmi, represents her emergence as the eternal source of wealth and prosperity during the Samudra Manthan, the cosmic churning of the ocean described in the , where she arose from the milky ocean as a symbol of divine abundance bestowed upon the gods. This form underscores her role as the foundational aspect of fortune, independent yet integral to the cosmic order. In Vaishnava theology, Lakshmi embodies Prakriti, the dynamic feminine principle of nature and material creation, complementing Vishnu's , the static masculine principle of pure spirit and consciousness. As Prakriti, she manifests maya—the illusory power that veils and reveals reality—facilitating the universe's abundance while ensuring spiritual harmony through her inseparable union with , as elaborated in the . Vaishnava doctrine affirms Lakshmi as a unified divine entity, with her diverse expressions—such as Sri or Bhudevi—serving as facets of a single essence that channels across material and spiritual realms. Bhudevi, or Earth Lakshmi, represents the terrestrial aspect, embodying and sustenance as Vishnu's consort in his avatar. This singularity distinguishes her from goddesses like , who personifies transformative power and devotion in Shaiva traditions, or , who signifies and in Brahminical contexts, as Lakshmi uniquely emphasizes holistic as Vishnu's eternal consort. In her primary depictions, Adi Lakshmi is often shown seated on a lotus with attendants, holding lotuses and vessels of to evoke her doctrinal attributes of purity and inexhaustible bounty.

Regional and Aspectual Variations

In South Indian traditions, particularly in and , Lakshmi is venerated through the concept of , comprising eight distinct forms that represent multifaceted aspects of prosperity and well-being. These forms include Adi Lakshmi, the primordial embodiment symbolizing eternal service and cosmic harmony; Dhana Lakshmi, the bestower of material and inner strength; Dhanya Lakshmi, associated with agricultural abundance and ; Gaja Lakshmi, linked to royal power and ; Santana Lakshmi, the granter of progeny and family continuity; Veera Lakshmi, embodying courage and valor; Vijaya Lakshmi, the source of and ; and Vidya Lakshmi, the patron of and . This octet underscores a holistic view of beyond mere finances, emphasizing spiritual and material fulfillment in devotional practices. Regional variations of Lakshmi's worship highlight localized adaptations across . In , she is revered as Mahalakshmi, a prominent family (kula daivata) often worshipped independently or alongside , with rituals emphasizing and protection for households. This form integrates into village traditions as a , reflecting ancient agrarian and communal values, and is observed through on Bhadrapada Shukla Ashtami, as detailed in texts like the Parushartha Chintamani. Such practices distinguish Mahalakshmi from pan-Hindu depictions by incorporating caste-specific priesthoods, such as those among Mahar communities, and linking her to regional mother-goddesses like Mari-ai. Thematic aspects of Lakshmi further diversify her iconography through specific manifestations tied to natural and auspicious symbols. Gaja-Lakshmi, depicted with elephants showering her with water from lotuses, symbolizes royal grandeur, fertility, and economic abundance, evolving from early Buddhist motifs at sites like and Sanchi (2nd century BCE) to a core Hindu emblem of prosperity along ancient trade routes. This form connects to festivals like , where it invokes themes of sovereignty and renewal. Similarly, Varalakshmi represents the boon-granting aspect of Lakshmi, embodying benevolence and fulfillment of desires, as elaborated in Puranic narratives where she bestows varam (boons) to devotees. Her veneration, prominent in South Indian observances like during Shravana, links to rituals seeking health, wealth, and marital harmony, drawing from traditions. Contemporary scholarly interpretations, particularly feminist perspectives, reframe Lakshmi as an empowering for women, highlighting her agency in bestowing and prosperity as a counter to patriarchal constraints. In Hindu traditions, Lakshmi's principles align with , positioning her as a symbol of female economic independence and spiritual authority, challenging historical subjugation by affirming women's roles in familial and societal sustenance. These readings draw from her multifaceted forms to for gender equity, viewing her as a divine model of resilience and resourcefulness in modern contexts.

Legends and Mythology

Origin Myths

One of the earliest precursors to Lakshmi in Hindu mythology appears in Vedic texts through the concept of Śrī, a personification of prosperity and auspiciousness tied to the cosmic order of ṛta, which governs the harmony of the universe and ensures the flow of abundance from divine principles. The Śrī Sūkta, an appendix to the Rigveda (Khila Sūkta 2.1-16), invokes this feminine power as the source of wealth, fertility, and material well-being, emerging as a benevolent force that upholds ṛta by bestowing riches upon devotees who align with moral and natural laws. This Vedic notion portrays prosperity not as random fortune but as a natural outcome of cosmic balance, laying the groundwork for Lakshmi's later anthropomorphic depictions as the embodiment of such bounty. The primary origin myth of Lakshmi is detailed in the Puranas, particularly her emergence during the Samudra Manthan, or churning of the ocean of milk, a cosmic event undertaken by the devas and asuras to reclaim lost vitality. According to the Bhagavata Purana (Canto 8, Chapter 8), after the devas, weakened by a curse from sage Durvasa on Indra for disrespecting a sacred garland, suffer the departure of prosperity itself—personified as Lakshmi—from the three worlds, they ally with the asuras under Vishnu's guidance to churn the Kshirasagara using Mount Mandara as the rod and serpent Vasuki as the rope. As the churning progresses, various treasures arise, but Lakshmi appears first among them, manifesting as a radiant goddess on a lotus, her beauty surpassing lightning on a marble peak, holding a lotus flower symbolizing purity and growth. She surveys all present beings before selecting Vishnu (Mukunda) as her eternal consort by garlanding him, thereby restoring opulence to the devas and marking her role as the divine bestower of fortune. This birth from the milk ocean carries profound symbolism, representing nourishment, fertility, and inexhaustible abundance, as the ocean itself evokes the primordial source of life and sustenance in Vedic and Puranic cosmology. The describes her as the root of all opulences, chaste and devoted solely to the Supreme, her emergence signifying the renewal of prosperity after cosmic disruption caused by the curse, which had compelled Lakshmi to abandon 's heavenly abode () and the realm of the gods, leading to their downfall against the asuras. Her return through the churning not only revives the devas but reaffirms her inseparable bond with , ensuring the restoration of and wealth to the universe. A related legend in the (Book 1, Chapter 9) traces an earlier aspect of Lakshmi's origin to her birth as the daughter of sage and his wife , before her oceanic emergence, highlighting her eternal nature across cycles of creation. In this narrative, Bhrigu's test of the culminates in him kicking in the chest—Lakshmi's symbolic abode—prompting her indignation and temporary departure to her father's realm, underscoring themes of humility and divine patience. Restoration occurs through Vishnu's incarnations, where she rejoins him, as seen in the subsequent churning that fully reintegrates her into the cosmic order.

Key Narratives and Associations

Lakshmi's marriage to represents an eternal union that symbolizes the inseparable bond between prosperity and the preservation of cosmic order. According to the , following her emergence from the churning of the ocean of milk, Lakshmi chooses as her consort, adorning his chest as the eternal embodiment of fortune and abundance. This divine partnership underscores how , upheld by , is sustained by Lakshmi's blessings of wealth and well-being, ensuring harmony across the universe. This union extends across Vishnu's avatars, where Lakshmi accompanies him in various forms to support his missions and maintain prosperity amid challenges. In the , she manifests as , the devoted wife of , enduring trials to uphold righteousness. The describes her as , Krishna's consort, who aids in his divine play and protection of devotees. Similarly, in traditions associated with , she appears as Padmavati, reinforcing the theme of unwavering companionship in preserving . Legends also depict Lakshmi abandoning realms that fall into impoverishment due to lapses in virtue or . In the , during 's dwarf , Lakshmi had resided in King Bali's prosperous kingdom owing to his devotion and generosity, but she departs with after Bali's defeat, leaving his domain stripped of fortune and highlighting her transient presence in unworthy abodes. Lakshmi's protective aspects emerge in conflicts with demons, where she actively safeguards and devotees. In the , she is linked to the defeat of the demon Shankhachuda through her as Tulsi, whose chastity boon renders the demon invincible until strategically broken by , allowing to vanquish him and restore balance.

Worship and Practices

Festivals and Rituals

One of the most prominent festivals dedicated to Lakshmi is , also known as Deepavali, celebrated as the festival of lights across Hindu communities worldwide. During this five-day event, culminating on the new moon night of the Hindu month of Kartik (typically October or November), devotees clean their homes and light oil lamps (diyas) at entrances to welcome Lakshmi, symbolizing the dispelling of darkness and invitation of prosperity into the household. The central ritual is , performed in the evening, where an altar is adorned with Lakshmi's idol or image alongside coins, sweets, and grains; lamps are lit, burned, and offerings made to invoke her blessings for and well-being. Lakshmi is also worshipped during Navratri, a nine-night festival typically in or , dedicated to . The middle three nights (fourth to sixth) focus on Lakshmi, invoking her for material and spiritual prosperity. Devotees perform special pujas with flowers, fruits, sweets, and incense; recite hymns like the Lakshmi Ashtakam; and offer sattvic food. This worship emphasizes her role in bestowing abundance, health, and liberation, complementing the overall theme of . Varalakshmi Vratam, observed primarily in on the second Friday of the Hindu month of Shravana (July or August), is a dedicated fast and worship ritual performed by married women seeking boons for family prosperity, health, and longevity. Participants begin with a holy bath and house cleaning using Ganga water, followed by decorating a (sacred pot) representing Varalakshmi—one of Lakshmi's boon-granting forms—with , , and jewelry; specific offerings include nine varieties of sweets, fruits, leaves, and , accompanied by recitations and aarti. The vrat involves fasting until evening, with a simple sattvic meal breaking the fast, emphasizing devotion to the (eight forms of Lakshmi) for granting wishes like victory, knowledge, and progeny. Daily and weekly rituals for Lakshmi worship often center on Fridays, considered her auspicious day, where households perform simple pujas to attract ongoing prosperity. Devotees clean altars and homes, light lamps, offer white flowers and sweets like , and draw —intricate floor designs using rice flour or colors depicting lotuses or Lakshmi's footprints—at entrances to symbolize abundance and ward off misfortune. These practices, repeated weekly, foster a continuous connection to Lakshmi's principles of wealth and purity. Regional variations enrich Lakshmi's rituals, such as Kojagiri Purnima in , observed on the night of the Hindu month of Ashvin (September or October), where families stay awake through the night to honor Lakshmi's nocturnal visit. Homes are illuminated with lamps, entrances decorated with , and an idol of Lakshmi is worshipped with offerings of , , and garlands; fasting is observed during the day, broken at midnight with bhajans and prayers for wealth and happiness, reflecting the belief that Lakshmi tests devotees' vigilance by moving only to alert households.

Hymns and Devotional Literature

The , a hymn from the Khila appendix of the , is one of the earliest recorded invocations to the Lakṣmī, seeking her blessings for , abundance, and protection against misfortune. Composed in , it petitions for material wealth such as gold, cattle, horses, and nourishing food while describing her as radiant and associated with lotuses and fertile earth, symbolizing fertility and royal consecration. This text underscores her role as a bestower of fame and good fortune, central to early devotional practices aimed at averting and ensuring well-being. Medieval stotras dedicated to Lakṣmī include the Lakṣmī Aṣṭakam, an eight-verse composition praising her divine attributes, such as her ability to dispel fears and grant liberation (mokṣa). Traditionally attributed to , the hymn extols her as the supreme energy (ādyāśakti) and abode of all accomplishments, recited to invoke her protective and prosperous grace. Complementing this is the Lakṣmī Sahasranāma, a of one thousand names drawn from the Skanda Purāṇa, where sage Sanatkumāra imparts it to other sages for fulfilling desires and eradicating destitution. Each name elucidates her forms, powers, and qualities—from protector (śaraṇyā) to cosmic mother (gaurī)—promoting profound meditative devotion through structured recitation. The Kanakadhāra Stotra, composed extempore by Ādi Śaṅkara in the 8th century CE, exemplifies personalized bhakti poetry addressed to Lakṣmī for alleviating . Inspired by the plight of a destitute woman offering bitter amla fruits in devotion, Śaṅkara beseeched the goddess to shower golden grace (kanaka dhāra), using vivid metaphors of her to blend poetic artistry with philosophical depth on overriding karma. The stotra's verses, rich in and emotional appeal, highlight her as the compassionate bestower of unmerited blessings, resonating in Advaita traditions. In the bhakti movement's vernacular literature, 15th-century poet-saint Annamācārya enriched Lakṣmī devotion through Telugu saṅkīrtanas like "Jaya Lakṣmī Vara Lakṣmī," portraying her as the benevolent consort of Viṣṇu and maternal protector of devotees. These compositions, part of his vast oeuvre exceeding 32,000 songs, integrate sṛṅgāra (romantic) and adhyātma (spiritual) themes to foster intimate emotional surrender, emphasizing her role in granting joy and integration with the divine. Annamācārya's works, inscribed on temple copper plates, popularized her worship in South Indian , influencing and lay devotion.

Sacred Sites and Archaeology

Major Temples

The in , , is a prominent Vaishnava where Lakshmi is revered as , the primary consort of the presiding deity Padmanabha, an aspect of reclining on the serpent Ananta. The temple's architecture blends Kerala and Dravidian styles, featuring intricate murals and gopurams, and it houses separate shrines for Sridevi and her co-consort Bhudevi, emphasizing Lakshmi's role in bestowing prosperity. In , the discovery of vast treasures in the temple's vaults—estimated at over $20 billion in gold, jewels, and artifacts—underscored Lakshmi's association with wealth, with items including gold idols and coins linked to historical royal endowments dedicated to her. The Mahalakshmi Temple in , , stands as one of the 108 Peethas and is dedicated to Mahalakshmi, an aspect of the goddess embodying power and prosperity as Vishnu's consort. Built in the 7th century CE by Chalukya ruler Karandev and later expanded under the Yadavas, the temple exemplifies with mortarless stone construction and detailed carvings of deities and motifs. Its central idol, a three-foot-tall black stone figure of Mahalakshmi standing with four arms holding a matulinga fruit, mace, shield, and lotus bowl, is self-manifested and adorned with a crown and a five-headed serpent hood; a stone serves as her . The site attracts millions during Navratri, a nine-night festival featuring music, , and processions, and the biannual Kirnotsav, where illuminates the idol's face on specific dates in January-February and November. The Sri Padmavathi Ammavari Temple in , near in , is dedicated to Padmavati, an of who emerged from a golden lotus after penance to reunite with as . According to temple legend, performed 12 years of in this location before manifesting as Padmavati in the 13th year, symbolizing devotion and marital harmony; the shrine thus serves as a complementary pilgrimage site to the nearby Temple. Devotees visit for blessings of prosperity and fulfillment, with daily rituals including abhishekam and special sevas like the weekly Kalyanakatta marriage ceremony reenacting Padmavati's union with ; the temple hosts annual Brahmotsavams with processions on ornate vahanas. As one of India's oldest pilgrim centers, it draws over a million visitors yearly, reinforcing Lakshmi's role in familial and material well-being. In the global , temples dedicated to Lakshmi adapt traditional worship for overseas Hindu communities, fostering cultural continuity amid migration. The Sri Lakshmi Temple in , USA—established in 1978 as New England's first traditional —features a South Indian-style housing the goddess's , where devotees perform daily pujas and festivals like , blending Vedic chants with community events for prosperity rituals. Similarly, the Shree Lakshmi Narayan in , , UK, opened in 2008 as Northern England's largest mandir, honors Lakshmi alongside Narayan () through aarti and bhajans, serving Gujarati and Punjabi immigrants with adapted celebrations that include multilingual discourses to engage younger generations. These sites highlight Lakshmi's enduring appeal, with endowments and architecture inspired by Indian prototypes to support global devotees' spiritual practices.

Archaeological Findings

Archaeological evidence for the worship of Lakshmi traces back to the second century BCE, with prominent depictions of Gaja-Lakshmi motifs appearing in sculptures at and Sanchi in . These early representations, found on medallions adorning the railings and gateways of the s, show the goddess standing or seated on a , flanked by showering her with water from their trunks or pots, symbolizing abundance and royal prosperity. Dated to the second and first centuries BCE, these motifs at and Sanchi illustrate Lakshmi's integration into early as a yakshini-like figure associated with and , predating her more formalized . By the Kushan period (first to third centuries CE), Lakshmi's imagery became more explicit on coinage, marking one of the earliest numismatic evidences of her veneration across the and beyond. Kushan rulers, originating from , were the first to incorporate the goddess's image on their gold and copper coins, often portraying her standing with lotuses or in a frontal pose akin to Roman or Iranian deities of fortune, reflecting syncretic influences from and cultural exchanges. These coins, issued under kings like and , circulated widely from the Gangetic plains to , underscoring Lakshmi's role as a symbol of imperial wealth and legitimacy. Excavations at sites like have yielded hoards of such Kushan copper coins dated to the second and third centuries CE, further attesting to her prominence in economic and devotional contexts. In southern , temple ruins from the Pallava period (seventh to ninth centuries CE) in reveal intricate Lakshmi panels integrated into , highlighting her evolving role in Dravidian devotional art. At the in Mahabalipuram, a well-preserved depicts Gaja-Lakshmi seated on a lotus, attended by elephants pouring water over her, carved during the reign of Pallava king (c. 630–668 CE) as part of larger Vishnu-related . These panels, excavated and documented through efforts, demonstrate standardized iconographic features such as the goddess's four-armed form holding lotuses, emphasizing in royal patronage. Similar motifs appear in ruins at sites like Mandagapattu and , where Lakshmi figures adorn cave temple facades, linking her worship to early Shaiva and Vaishnava complexes. Post-2000 excavations and analyses have connected Lakshmi artifacts to ancient trade routes and prosperity cults, providing fresh insights into her transnational appeal. A notable example is the ivory statuette of Lakshmi unearthed in Pompeii, , preserved by the 79 CE eruption of Vesuvius; re-examined in recent studies, it depicts the goddess in a nude, four-armed form with lotuses, likely imported via Indo-Roman maritime trade networks linking South Indian ports like to the Mediterranean during the first century CE. This artifact, now housed in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, exemplifies Lakshmi's association with wealth in merchant communities, as evidenced by similar ivories from Begram in hoards. In , 2023 excavations at revealed a hoard of Kushan-era copper coins, tying her to overland exchanges and local prosperity rituals. These findings underscore how Lakshmi's facilitated economic symbolism across Eurasian trade corridors from the first millennium BCE onward.

Lakshmi in Other Traditions

In Jainism

In Jainism, Lakshmi, revered as Śrī or Padmā, embodies wealth, prosperity, and auspiciousness within the religion's cosmology, residing in the middle world at a lake on Mount Himavant in the lower levels of the upper world. She functions as an attendant deity or yakṣī, mediating between the Tīrthaṅkaras and lay devotees while granting boons of abundance, though her role underscores the transient nature of material wealth in alignment with Jain principles of non-attachment and ethical living. Unlike her portrayal in other traditions, Śrī lacks any consort associations and is integrated as a supportive spirit promoting spiritual merit over worldly indulgence. Jain texts such as the Kālpasūtra depict Śrī appearing in the auspicious dreams—typically the fourth—of a Tīrthaṅkara's , symbolizing forthcoming and divine favor, as seen in the dreams of Triśalā, mother of Mahāvīra. In the by Pampa, she is portrayed as a yakṣī attendant to Tīrthaṅkaras, including figures like , bestowing blessings that aid devotees in their path toward liberation without emphasizing possessive accumulation. Other works like the Ācār Dinakara, , and invoke her through mantras such as "oṃ śrīṃ hrīṃ klīṃ mahālakṣmyai namaḥ," highlighting her role in fostering ethical . Iconographically, Śrī is often shown in the Gajalakṣmī form, seated on a with two elephants showering her with water from pitchers, holding lotuses, a , or a in her four arms; this imagery appears in Śvetāmbara and manuscripts, temple carvings at sites like , , and , and on gateways or independent shrines. These depictions adapt shared symbols like the lotus to convey purity and non-theistic ethics, where her presence reminds worshippers of wealth's role in supporting rather than desire. Worship of Śrī occurs prominently in Jain temples, particularly among communities, during festivals like Dhanateras and Dīpāvalī, involving rituals such as applying kuṃkuma , offering coins, sweets, and pañcāmṛta to her images for blessings of fortune. These practices emphasize detachment, viewing the wealth she represents as a tool for charitable acts and monastic support, thereby aligning material success with the pursuit of mokṣa. Devotees recite her stotras and perform āratīs, reinforcing her as a benevolent force within Jain lay .

In Buddhism

In Mahayana Buddhism, Lakshmi is primarily incorporated as Vasudhara, the goddess of wealth, prosperity, and abundance, embodying the virtue of dana (generosity) to foster spiritual and material well-being among practitioners. Vasudhara, whose name translates to "stream of gems" in , is revered for bestowing not only material riches but also the spiritual merit gained through giving, aligning with Buddhist teachings on interdependence and . This adaptation transforms the Hindu Lakshmi's focus on fortune into a bodhisattva-like figure who aids enlightenment by encouraging ethical accumulation and distribution of resources. Vasudhara often appears as the consort of (also known as Dzambhala or Vaishravana), the Buddhist deity of wealth, paralleling Lakshmi's association with in Hindu traditions but emphasizing joint practices for overcoming through mindful . In this pairing, particularly in Newar Buddhist communities of and Tibetan traditions, they symbolize the harmonious balance of abundance and its ethical use, with rituals invoking their blessings for communal harmony and dana offerings. In tantric Buddhist practices, Lakshmi's essence is syncretized with figures like , a powerful invoked in rituals to grant siddhis (spiritual accomplishments) alongside material wealth, often within esoteric sadhanas blending Hindu and elements. These rituals, rooted in Nepalese and Tibetan tantric lineages, position her as a transformative force for overcoming obstacles to enlightenment, though distinct from core Hindu worship. Iconographically, depictions of Lakshmi-like figures in from the 1st to 5th centuries CE mirror Hindu forms—seated on lotuses with pouring water, symbolizing and abundance—but incorporate Buddhist mudras such as the varada (boon-granting) or abhaya (fear-dispelling) to evoke enlightenment and protection from samsaric . These sculptures, often adorning stupas and viharas, highlight shared motifs from ancient , adapting Lakshmi's lotus symbolism to represent the pure arising of the Buddha's birth and teachings. In , Lakshmi manifests as the peaceful form of (Shri Devi Dudsolma), the principal female dharma protector, safeguarding practitioners against poverty and misfortune through her wrathful and benevolent aspects in tantric protector practices. As Shri Lakshmi, she ensures the flow of resources to support the , particularly venerated in traditions as a guardian of and the Dalai Lama's lineage, blending prosperity with fierce obstacle-removal.

Avatars and Incarnations

In Vaishnava theology, Lakshmi accompanies during his incarnations as his divine consort, ensuring the fulfillment of through her embodiment of prosperity and devotion. This partnership underscores the inseparability of preservation and abundance in cosmic order. During Vishnu's Rama avatar in the , Lakshmi manifests as , the devoted wife of in the epic . Born from a furrow in the earth while King plows a field for a , Sita represents ideal wifely devotion () and the prosperity that sustains righteous rule, aiding Rama in upholding against exemplified by . Her trials, including exile and abduction, highlight themes of unwavering loyalty and inner strength, ultimately leading to the restoration of cosmic balance. This incarnation is affirmed in the , where Sita is explicitly identified as Lakshmi's form to support Vishnu's earthly mission. In the , with Vishnu's Krishna avatar, Lakshmi appears as , Krishna's principal queen and embodiment of divine love. The legend, detailed in the (Canto 10, Chapters 52–54), recounts 's with Krishna to evade an unwanted alliance, symbolizing the soul's yearning for union with the divine. As the daughter of King , brings prosperity to Dwaraka, reinforcing Krishna's role in establishing amid chaos. Her devotion, expressed in a poignant letter to Krishna seeking his protection, exemplifies and the harmonious integration of love and wealth in Vishnu's incarnations. Lakshmi also assumes forms in other Vishnu avatars, such as Padma (or Kamala) during the Vamana incarnation, where she supports the dwarf Brahmin's quest to reclaim the three worlds from the demon by embodying the lotus of purity and fortune. In the avatar, she incarnates as , the earth-bearing consort who aids in purging corrupt kshatriyas and restoring balance to society. For the avatar, Lakshmi is depicted as calming the fierce man-lion form after the slaying of , transforming destructive rage into protective benevolence, as seen in iconography like . These pairings, drawn from Puranic accounts such as the , illustrate Lakshmi's adaptive roles in facilitating 's interventions. Theologically, Lakshmi's presence in Vishnu's avatars signifies the essential synergy between divine power () and preservation, where her prosperity empowers the success of by providing material and spiritual sustenance. Without her, Vishnu's missions risk incompleteness, as she channels abundance to devotees and ensures the ethical framework of the universe endures across yugas. This doctrine, central to , emphasizes that true wealth arises from devotion, aligning individual and cosmic .

Independent Incarnations

One notable independent incarnation of Lakshmi is as , depicted in the Ramayana as a ascetic woman devoted to through intense penance in the Himalayan forests. The daughter of the sage Kushadhwaja, Vedavati rejected advances from the demon king , who attempted to seize her during her meditation; in response, she entered a sacrificial fire, cursing him that she would be reborn to cause his destruction and the end of his lineage. This manifestation stands apart as a standalone act of divine resolve, preceding her later rebirth as , and underscores Lakshmi's role in upholding through personal agency rather than direct partnership. In regional traditions, particularly in South Indian lore, Lakshmi manifests as Alamelu Manga (also known as Padmavati), an earthly incarnation born in a thousand-petaled golden lotus at the sacred tank of Padmasarovaram in Tiruchanur during the Kali Yuga. According to temple legends preserved by the Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams, she emerged on a Friday in the month of Kartika as the daughter of King Akasha Raja, embodying prosperity and compassion to bless devotees with abundance and spiritual fulfillment at her shrine. This form is venerated independently in rituals at the Padmavati Temple, where she is invoked for granting wishes, removing obstacles, and ensuring marital harmony, highlighting her localized role as a benevolent maternal figure. Puranic narratives occasionally portray Lakshmi in autonomous manifestations during cosmic battles against demons, such as her slaying of the Kolhasura as Mahalakshmi. In the , she independently confronts and defeats Kolhasura, who sought to disrupt divine order, establishing as a sacred abode of her power and earning the "Kolhapuri Mahalakshmi." This emphasizes her aspect in preserving without reliance on other deities, transforming the demon's realm into a site of eternal wealth and protection. In folk interpretations, Lakshmi occasionally appears in within ethical tales to impart lessons on devotion and generosity, often as a weary traveler or humble figure testing human virtue. For instance, regional stories from and depict her as a disguised beggar who rewards a kind-hearted family's with sudden , while punishing neglect with temporary misfortune, reinforcing the moral that true wealth stems from ethical conduct and compassion. These narratives, drawn from oral traditions and regional texts like the , portray her as an accessible guide in everyday life, independent of grand cosmic cycles.

References

  1. https://www.hinduamerican.org/blog/lakshmi/
  2. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/vishnu-purana-wilson/d/doc115945.html
  3. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/essay/goddesses-from-the-samhitas-to-the-sutras/d/doc1457769.html
  4. https://www.islamiarastirmalar.com/journal_article/lakshmis-divine-persona-tracing-the-evolution-of-lakshmis-identity-across-classical-hindu-sacred-texts/
  5. https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/lakshmi
  6. https://www.islamiarastirmalar.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/islamiarastirmalar36-2-2.pdf
  7. https://www.hinduamerican.org/blog/ashta-lakshmi-the-eight-forms-of-lakshmi/
  8. https://mahavidya.ca/2008/04/15/the-iconography-of-sri-laksmi/
  9. https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/lakshmi-in-art-the-goddess-of-wealth/
  10. https://www.academia.edu/94339739/Iconography_of_Goddess_Lakshmi
  11. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1b33/5f61af61270dd6fc32cdc3362cf7dc7203e9.pdf
  12. https://latest.sundayguardianlive.com/news/imagery-of-goddess-lakshmi-from-primordial-depictions-to-modern-calendar-art
  13. https://www.wisdomlib.org/concept/golden-complexion
  14. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387951583_The_Lotus_In_Art_And_Faith_A_Cross-Cultural_Study_Of_Indian_And_Sri_Lankan_Symbolism
  15. https://rubinmuseum.org/the-lotus-flower-sacred-symbol-of-transcendence/
  16. https://mapacademy.io/article/gajalakshmi/
  17. https://www.prathaculturalschool.com/post/the-iconography-of-goddess-lakshmi-a-brief-overview
  18. https://www.indian-heritage.org/gods/lakshmi.htm
  19. https://archive.org/stream/hindu-goddesses-david-kinsley/Hindu%2520Goddesses%2520-%2520David%2520Kinsley_djvu.txt
  20. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20616531
  21. https://sanskritdocuments.org/articles/Vishnu_and_Devi_by_Nagaraj_Paturi.pdf
  22. https://archive.org/details/laksmitantratranslationbysanjuktaguptareprintdelhi2003lakshmitantra
  23. http://www.srimatham.com/uploads/5/5/4/9/5549439/srivaishnava_handbook.pdf
  24. https://www.dlshq.org/download/all-about-hinduism/
  25. https://gyan.iitg.ac.in/bitstreams/a601e3cb-d05f-41e6-b02f-227d0a592fea/download
  26. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375471228_THE_FUNCTIONS_OF_GODDESS_LAKSHMI
  27. https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Language%20and%20Literature/chapter_vii.pdf
  28. http://repository.kln.ac.lk/bitstreams/20409dc6-ca67-4bda-beb8-2ba2eeac566d/download
  29. https://www.learnreligions.com/mahalakshmi-or-varalakshmi-vrata-puja-1770196
  30. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371063504_SHAKTI_AND_LAKSHMI_PRINCIPLES_EMPOWERING_WOMEN_IN_INDIAN_TRADITION
  31. https://kuey.net/index.php/kuey/article/download/7510/5601/14644
  32. https://www.academia.edu/96825643/Rigvedic_Reference_to_Gajalakshmi_Her_Representation_in_Temples_and_Stupas
  33. https://greenmesg.org/stotras/lakshmi/sri_suktam.php
  34. https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/8/
  35. https://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/11-08/features1193.htm
  36. https://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/lesser-known-stories-of-the-hindu-goddess-lakshmi/
  37. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/rituals-puja/varalakshmi-vratam-2025-date-time-puja-rituals-and-significance/articleshow/123157960.cms
  38. https://www.hindujagruti.org/hinduism/shri-lakshmi-rangoli-designs
  39. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/rituals-puja/observe-vara-lakshmi-vrat-on-fridays/articleshow/68207125.cms
  40. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/rituals-puja/kojagara-puja-2025-laxmi-puja-date-time-rituals-and-significance-of-kojagiri-purnima/articleshow/124304135.cms
  41. https://www.artofliving.org/in-en/festivals/navratri/mahalakshmi-ashtakam
  42. https://veda.harekrsna.cz/library/Lakshmi_Sahasranama_Stotram_Skanda_Purana.pdf
  43. https://www.anantaajournal.com/archives/2025/vol11issue2/PartC/11-2-19-833.pdf
  44. https://www.sangeetasudha.org/annamacharya/
  45. https://www.tirumala.org/Downloads/RESERCH%20BOOKS/Annamacharya-Volume%20II-By%20Dr.%20M.%20Narasimhachary%20and%20Dr.M.S.Ramesh.pdf
  46. https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/padmanabha-swamy-temple-thiruvananthapuram/13/
  47. https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/article30176370.ece
  48. https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/mahalaxmi/
  49. https://www.incredibleindia.gov.in/en/maharashtra/kolhapur/mahalaxmi-temple
  50. https://www.tirumala.org/PatAtThiruchanoorTempleLegend.aspx
  51. https://www.tirumala.org/PatAtThiruchanoorSevas.aspx
  52. https://www.incredibleindia.gov.in/en/trips/trip-listing/spiritual-abode-of-enlightenment
  53. https://srilakshmi.org/history/
  54. https://www.bradfordmandir.org/
  55. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/coinage-with-images-of-gods-and-goddesses-dates-back-to-kushans/article66061756.ece
  56. https://archaeologymag.com/2023/11/kushan-period-copper-coins-found-at-mohenjo-daro/
  57. https://www.academia.edu/19941649/Earliest_Representation_of_Goddess_Srivatsam_Lakshmi_in_Dravidian_Art
  58. https://thebetterindia.com/155431/news-india-pompeii-lakshmi-roman-empire-link/
  59. https://jainpedia.org/themes/practices/deities/
  60. https://www.indica.today/research/conference/veneration-of-goddess-lakshmi-in-jain-traditions/
  61. https://teahouse.buddhistdoor.net/vasudhara-goddess-of-abundance/
  62. https://www.academia.edu/94739220/Goddess_Laxmi_in_Indonesia
  63. https://enlightenmentthangka.com/blogs/thangka/siddhi-lakshmi-in-buddhism-origin-and-adaptation
  64. https://www.academia.edu/97429689/Siddhi_Lakshmi_Purnachandi_The_Goddess_of_Miraculous_Power
  65. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344327079_Significance_of_Lotus_Depiction_in_Gandhara_Art
  66. https://www.himalayanart.org/search/set.cfm?setID=891
  67. https://www.hinduamerican.org/blog/lakshmi
  68. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-ramayana-of-valmiki/d/doc424778.html
  69. https://www.kamakoti.org/kamakoti/books/ESSENCE-OF-VALMIKI-UTTARA-RAMAYANA.pdf
  70. https://ebooks.tirumala.org/downloads/sanctorom_of_goddess_padmavathi_english.pdf
  71. https://www.epw.in/engage/article/lakshmi-against-untouchability-puranic-texts-and
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.