Meteorology

Meteorology is the scientific study of the Earth's atmosphere and short-term atmospheric phenomena (i.e., weather), with a focus on weather forecasting. It has applications in the military, aviation, energy production, transport, agriculture, construction, weather warnings, and disaster management.

Along with climatology, atmospheric physics, atmospheric chemistry, and aeronomy, meteorology forms the broader field of the atmospheric sciences. The interactions between Earth's atmosphere and its oceans (notably El Niño and La Niña) are studied in the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology. Other interdisciplinary areas include biometeorology, space weather, and planetary meteorology. Marine weather forecasting relates meteorology to maritime and coastal safety, based on atmospheric interactions with large bodies of water.

Meteorologists study meteorological phenomena driven by solar radiation, Earth's rotation, ocean currents, and other factors. These include everyday weather like clouds, precipitation, and wind patterns, as well as severe weather events such as tropical cyclones and severe winter storms. Such phenomena are quantified using variables like temperature, pressure, and humidity, which are then used to forecast weather at local (microscale), regional (mesoscale and synoptic scale), and global scales. Meteorologists collect data using basic instruments like thermometers, barometers, and weather vanes (for surface-level measurements), alongside advanced tools like weather satellites, balloons, reconnaissance aircraft, buoys, and radars. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) ensures international standardization of meteorological research.

The study of meteorology dates back millennia. Ancient civilizations tried to predict weather through folklore, astrology, and religious rituals. Aristotle's treatise Meteorology sums up early observations of the field, which advanced little during early medieval times but experienced a resurgence during the Renaissance, when Alhazen and René Descartes challenged Aristotelian theories, emphasizing scientific methods. In the 18th century, accurate measurement tools (e.g., barometer and thermometer) were developed, and the first meteorological society was founded. In the 19th century, telegraph-based weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. In the 20th century, numerical weather prediction (NWP), coupled with advanced satellite and radar technology, introduced sophisticated forecasting models. Later, computers revolutionized forecasting by processing vast datasets in real time and automatically solving modeling equations. 21st-century meteorology is highly accurate and driven by big data and supercomputing. It is adopting innovations like machine learning, ensemble forecasting, and high-resolution global climate modeling. Climate change–induced extreme weather poses new challenges for forecasting and research, while inherent uncertainty remains because of the atmosphere's chaotic nature (see butterfly effect).

The word meteorology is from the Ancient Greek μετέωρος metéōros (meteor) and -λογία -logia (-(o)logy), meaning "the study of things high in the air".^{[citation needed]}

Early attempts at predicting weather were often related to prophecy and divining, and were sometimes based on astrological ideas. Ancient religions believed meteorological phenomena to be under the control of the gods. The ability to predict rains and floods based on annual cycles was evidently used by humans at least from the time of agricultural settlement if not earlier. Early approaches to predicting weather were based on astrology and were practiced by priests. The Egyptians had rain-making rituals as early as 3500 BC.

Ancient Indian Upanishads contain mentions of clouds and seasons. The Samaveda mentions sacrifices to be performed when certain phenomena were noticed. Varāhamihira's classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD, provides evidence of weather observation.

Cuneiform inscriptions on Babylonian tablets included associations between thunder and rain. The Chaldeans differentiated the 22° and 46° halos.