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Dharma (/ˈdɑːrmə/; Sanskrit: धर्म, pronounced [dʱɐrmɐ] ⓘ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term dharma does not have a single, clear translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit dhr-, meaning to hold or to support, thus referring to law that sustains things—from one's life to society, and to the Universe at large. In its most commonly used sense, dharma refers to an individual's moral responsibilities or duties; the dharma of a farmer differs from the dharma of a soldier, thus making the concept of dharma dynamic. As with the other components of the Puruṣārtha, the concept of dharma is pan-Indian. The antonym of dharma is adharma.

In Hinduism, dharma denotes behaviour that is considered to be in accord with Ṛta—the "order and custom" that makes life and universe possible.[note 1] This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living" according to the stage of life or social position. Dharma is believed to have a transtemporal validity, and is one of the Puruṣārtha. The concept of dharma was in use in the historical Vedic religion (1500–500 BCE), and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia.

In Buddhism, dharma (Pali: dhamma) refers to the teachings of the Buddha and to the true nature of reality (which the teachings point to). In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for specific "phenomena" and for the ultimate truth.[note 2] Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of Tirthankara (Jina) and the body of doctrine pertaining to purification and moral transformation. In Sikhism, dharma indicates the path of righteousness, proper religious practices, and performing moral duties.

Etymology

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The Prakrit word "dhaṃ-ma"/𑀥𑀁𑀫 (Sanskrit: Dharma धर्म) in the Brahmi script, as inscribed by Emperor Ashoka in his Edicts of Ashoka (3rd century BCE)

The word dharma (/ˈdɑːrmə/)[3] has roots in the Sanskrit dhr-, which means to hold or to support, and is related to Latin firmus (firm, stable).[4] From this, it takes the meaning of "what is established or firm", and hence "law". It is derived from an older Vedic Sanskrit n-stem dharman-, with a literal meaning of "bearer, supporter", in a religious sense conceived as an aspect of Rta.[5]

In the Rigveda, the word appears as an n-stem, dhárman-, with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm" (in the literal sense of prods or poles). Figuratively, it means "sustainer" and "supporter" (of deities). It is semantically similar to the Greek themis ("fixed decree, statute, law").[6]

In Classical Sanskrit, and in the Vedic Sanskrit of the Atharvaveda, the stem is thematic: dhárma- (Devanagari: धर्म). In Prakrit and Pali, it is rendered dhamma. In some contemporary Indian languages and dialects it alternatively occurs as dharm.

In the 3rd century BCE the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka translated dharma into Greek and Aramaic and he used the Greek word eusebeia (εὐσέβεια, piety, spiritual maturity, or godliness) in the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription and the Kandahar Greek Edicts.[7] In the former, he used the Aramaic word קשיטא (qšyṭ’; truth, rectitude).[8]

Definition

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Dharma
Ahimsa[9]
Yoga[10]
Law and justice[11]
Rituals and rites of passage[12]
Sannyasa and stages of life[13]
Duties, such as learning from teachers[14]

Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and Indian religions.[15] It has multiple meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism.[16] It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for dharma, as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations.[17] There is no equivalent single-word synonym for dharma in western languages.[18]

There have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the word dharma into German, English and French. The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused exceptional difficulties for modern commentators and translators.[19] For example, while Grassmann's translation of Rig-Veda identifies seven different meanings of dharma,[20] Karl Friedrich Geldner in his translation of the Rig-Veda employs 20 different translations for dharma, including meanings such as "law", "justice", "righteousness", "order", "duty", "custom", "quality", and "model", among others.[19] However, the word dharma has become a widely accepted loanword in English, and is included in all modern unabridged English dictionaries.

The term dharma derives from the Sanskrit root "dhr̥", which means "to support, hold, or bear". It is the thing that regulates the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant.[21] Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, the widely cited resource for definitions and explanation of Sanskrit words and concepts of Hinduism, offers[22] numerous definitions of the word dharma, such as that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, law, practice, custom, duty, right, justice, virtue, morality, ethics, religion, religious merit, good works, nature, character, quality, property. Yet, each of these definitions is incomplete, while the combination of these translations does not convey the total sense of the word. In common parlance, dharma means "right way of living" and "path of rightness".[21] Dharma also has connotations of order, and when combined with the word sanātana, it can also be described as eternal truth.[23]

The meaning of the word dharma depends on the context, and its meaning has evolved as ideas of Hinduism have developed through history. In the earliest texts and ancient myths of Hinduism, dharma meant cosmic law, the rules that created the universe from chaos, as well as rituals; in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and the Epics, the meaning became refined, richer, and more complex, and the word was applied to diverse contexts.[24] In certain contexts, dharma designates human behaviours considered necessary for order of things in the universe, principles that prevent chaos, behaviours and action necessary to all life in nature, society, family as well as at the individual level.[1][24][25][note 1] Dharma encompasses ideas such as duty, rights, character, vocation, religion, customs and all behaviour considered appropriate, correct or morally upright.[26] For further context, the word varnasramdharma is often used in its place, defined as dharma specifically related to the stage of life one is in.[27] The concept of Dharma is believed to have a transtemporal validity.[28]

The antonym of dharma is adharma (Sanskrit: अधर्म),[29] meaning that which is "not dharma". As with dharma, the word adharma includes and implies many ideas; in common parlance, adharma means that which is against nature, immoral, unethical, wrong or unlawful.[30]

In Buddhism, dharma incorporates the teachings and doctrines of the founder of Buddhism, the Buddha.

History

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According to Pandurang Vaman Kane, author of the book History of Dharmaśāstra, the word dharma appears at least fifty-six times in the hymns of the Rigveda, as an adjective or noun. According to Paul Horsch, the word dharma has its origin in Vedic Hinduism.[19] The hymns of the Rigveda claim Brahman created the universe from chaos, they hold (dhar-) the earth and sun and stars apart, they support (dhar-) the sky away and distinct from earth, and they stabilise (dhar-) the quaking mountains and plains.[19][31]

The Deities, mainly Indra, then deliver and hold order from disorder, harmony from chaos, stability from instability – actions recited in the Veda with the root of word dharma.[24] In hymns composed after the mythological verses, the word dharma takes expanded meaning as a cosmic principle and appears in verses independent of deities. It evolves into a concept, claims Paul Horsch, that has a dynamic functional sense in Atharvaveda for example, where it becomes the cosmic law that links cause and effect through a subject.[19] Dharma, in these ancient texts, also takes a ritual meaning. The ritual is connected to the cosmic, and "dharmani" is equated to ceremonial devotion to the principles that deities used to create order from disorder, the world from chaos.[32]

Past the ritual and cosmic sense of dharma that link the current world to mythical universe, the concept extends to an ethical-social sense that links human beings to each other and to other life forms. It is here that dharma as a concept of law emerges in Hinduism.[33][34]

Dharma and related words are found in the oldest Vedic literature of Hinduism, in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and the Epics; the word dharma also plays a central role in the literature of other Indian religions founded later, such as Buddhism and Jainism.[24] According to Brereton, Dharman occurs 63 times in Rig-veda; in addition, words related to Dharman also appear in Rig-veda, for example once as dharmakrt, 6 times as satyadharman, and once as dharmavant, 4 times as dharman and twice as dhariman.[35]

Indo-European parallels for "dharma" are known, but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persian darmān, meaning "remedy". This meaning is different from the Indo-Aryan dhárman, suggesting that the word "dharma" did not play a major role in the Indo-Iranian period. Instead, it was primarily developed more recently under the Vedic tradition.[35]

It is thought that the Daena of Zoroastrianism, also meaning the "eternal Law" or "religion", is related to Sanskrit "dharma".[36] Ideas in parts overlapping to Dharma are found in other ancient cultures: such as Chinese Tao, Egyptian Maat, Sumerian Me.[21]

Eusebeia and dharma

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The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription is from Indian Emperor Asoka in 258 BCE, and found in Afghanistan. The inscription renders the word dharma in Sanskrit as eusebeia in Greek, suggesting dharma in ancient India meant spiritual maturity, devotion, piety, duty towards and reverence for human community.[37]

In the mid-20th century, an inscription of the Indian Emperor Asoka from the year 258 BCE was discovered in Afghanistan, the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription. This rock inscription contains Greek and Aramaic text. According to Paul Hacker,[37] on the rock appears a Greek rendering for the Sanskrit word dharma: the word eusebeia.[37]

Scholars of Hellenistic Greece explain eusebeia as a complex concept. Eusebia means not only to venerate deities, but also spiritual maturity, a reverential attitude toward life, and includes the right conduct toward one's parents, siblings and children, the right conduct between husband and wife, and the conduct between biologically unrelated people. This rock inscription, concludes Paul Hacker, suggests dharma in India, about 2300 years ago, was a central concept and meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good, of one's duty toward the human community.[37][38]

Rta, maya and dharma

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The evolving literature of Hinduism linked dharma to two other important concepts: Ṛta and Māyā. Ṛta in Vedas is the truth and cosmic principle which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[39][40] Māyā in Rig-veda and later literature means illusion, fraud, deception, magic that misleads and creates disorder,[41] thus is contrary to reality, laws and rules that establish order, predictability and harmony. Paul Horsch suggests Ṛta and dharma are parallel concepts, the former being a cosmic principle, the latter being of moral social sphere;[19] while Māyā and dharma are also correlative concepts, the former being that which corrupts law and moral life, the later being that which strengthens law and moral life.[39][42]

Day proposes dharma is a manifestation of Ṛta, but suggests Ṛta may have been subsumed into a more complex concept of dharma, as the idea developed in ancient India over time in a nonlinear manner.[43] The following verse from the Rigveda is an example where rta and dharma are linked:

O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils...

— RV 10.133.6

Hinduism

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Dharma is an organising principle in Hinduism that applies to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all of cosmos and its parts.[21] It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe possible, and includes behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics.[1][note 1] Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.[44] Dharma, according to Van Buitenen,[45] is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is neither the act nor the result, but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent chaos in the world. It is innate characteristic, that makes the being what it is. It is, claims Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. In Hinduism, it is the dharma of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of river to flow.[45] In terms of humanity, dharma is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and interconnectedness of all life.[21][37] This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".[46]

In its true essence, dharma means for a Hindu to "expand the mind". Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together. In the way societal phenomena affect the conscience of the individual, similarly may the actions of an individual alter the course of the society, for better or for worse. This has been subtly echoed by the credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaning dharma is that which holds and provides support to the social construct.[citation needed]

In Hinduism, dharma generally includes various aspects:

In Vedas and Upanishads

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The history section of this article discusses the development of dharma concept in Vedas. This development continued in the Upanishads and later ancient scripts of Hinduism. In Upanishads, the concept of dharma continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is explained as law of righteousness and equated to satya (Sanskrit: सत्यं, truth),[19][54] in hymn 1.4.14 of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, as follows:

Nothing is higher than dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by dharma, as over a king. Truly that dharma is the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.4.xiv[19][54]

Dharma and Mimamsa

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Mimamsa, developed through commentaries on its foundational texts, particularly the Mimamsa Sutras attributed to Jaimini, emphasizes "the desire to know dharma" as the central concern, defining dharma as what connects a person with the highest good, always yet to be realized. While some schools associate dharma with post-mortem existence, Mimamsakas focus on the continual renewal and realization of a ritual world through adherence to Vedic injunctions. They assert that the ultimate good is essentially inaccessible to perception and can only be understood through language, reflecting confidence in Vedic injunctions and the reality of language as a means of knowing.[55]

Mimamsa addresses the delayed results of actions (like wealth or heaven) through the concept of apurva or adrsta, an unseen force that preserves the connection between actions and their outcomes. This ensures that Vedic sacrifices, though their results are delayed, are effective and reliable in guiding toward dharma.[56]

In the Epics

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The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims Daniel Ingalls, places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent.[57] In Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja".[58]

Dharma is at the centre of all major events in the life of Dasharatha, Rama, Sita, and Lakshman in Ramayana. In the Ramayana, Dasharatha upholds his dharma by honoring a promise to Kaikeyi, resulting in his beloved son Rama's exile, even though it brings him immense personal suffering.[59]

In the Mahabharata, dharma is central, and it is presented through symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, Yama referred to as dharma in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudhishthira, who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal. Yudhishthira refuses to abandon his companion, for which he is then praised by dharma.[60] The value and appeal of the Mahabharata, according to Ingalls, is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book.[59] Indian metaphysics, he argues, is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures. Instead, the appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana, lies in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, where there are usually three answers:[59] one answer is of Bhima, which represents brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of Yudhishthira, which appeals to piety, deities, social virtue, and tradition; the third answer is of introspective Arjuna, which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of dharma.[61] There is extensive discussion of dharma at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.[62] The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma with metaphors.[63]

According to 4th-century Vatsyayana

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According to Klaus Klostermaier, 4th-century CE Hindu scholar Vātsyāyana explained dharma by contrasting it with adharma.[64] Vātsyāyana suggested that dharma is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana:[64][65]

  1. Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft), pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with someone other than one's partner)
  2. Dharma of body: dana (charity), paritrana (succor of the distressed) and paricarana (rendering service to others)
  3. Adharma from words one speaks or writes: mithya (falsehood), parusa (caustic talk), sucana (calumny) and asambaddha (absurd talk)
  4. Dharma from words one speaks or writes: satya (truth and facts), hitavacana (talking with good intention), priyavacana (gentle, kind talk), svadhyaya (self-study)
  5. Adharma of mind: paradroha (ill will to anyone), paradravyabhipsa (covetousness), nastikya (denial of the existence of morals and religiosity)
  6. Dharma of mind: daya (compassion), asprha (disinterestedness), and sraddha (faith in others)

According to Patanjali Yoga

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In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali the dharma is real; in the Vedanta it is unreal.[66]

Dharma is part of yoga, suggests Patanjali; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities and aspects of yoga.[66] Patanjali explained dharma in two categories: yamas (restraints) and niyamas (observances).[64]

The five yamas, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury to all living creatures, abstain from falsehood (satya), abstain from unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another (acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your partner, and abstain from expecting or accepting gifts from others.[67] The five yama apply in action, speech and mind. In explaining yama, Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require qualification in conduct. For example, a fisherman must injure a fish, but he must attempt to do this with least trauma to fish and the fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes.[68]

The five niyamas (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure food and removing impure thoughts (such as arrogance or jealousy or pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic knowledge, and devotion of all actions to the Supreme Teacher to achieve perfection of concentration.[69]

Sources

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Dharma is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of Hinduism.[37][70] For example, Apastamba Dharmasutra states:

Dharma and Adharma do not go around saying, "That is us." Neither do gods, nor gandharvas, nor ancestors declare what is Dharma and what is Adharma.

— Apastamba Dharmasutra[71]

In other texts, three sources and means to discover dharma in Hinduism are described. These, according to Paul Hacker, are:[72] First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads, the Epics and other Sanskrit literature with the help of one's teacher. Second, observing the behaviour and example of good people. The third source applies when neither one's education nor example exemplary conduct is known. In this case, "atmatusti" is the source of dharma in Hinduism, that is the good person reflects and follows what satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to.[72]

Dharma, life stages and social stratification

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Main articles: Āśrama and Puruṣārtha

Some texts of Hinduism outline dharma for society and at the individual level. Of these, the most cited one is Manusmriti, which describes the four Varnas, their rights and duties.[73] Most texts of Hinduism, however, discuss dharma with no mention of Varna (caste).[74] Other dharma texts and Smritis differ from Manusmriti on the nature and structure of Varnas.[73] Yet, other texts question the very existence of varna. Bhrigu, in the Epics, for example, presents the theory that dharma does not require any varnas.[75] In practice, medieval India is widely believed to be a socially stratified society, with each social strata inheriting a profession and being endogamous. Varna was not absolute in Hindu dharma; individuals had the right to renounce and leave their Varna, as well as their asramas of life, in search of moksa.[73][76] While neither Manusmriti nor succeeding Smritis of Hinduism ever use the word varnadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas), or varnasramadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas and asramas), the scholarly commentary on Manusmriti use these words, and thus associate dharma with varna system of India.[73][77] In 6th-century India, even Buddhist kings called themselves "protectors of varnasramadharma" – that is, dharma of varna and asramas of life.[73][78]

At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outline four āśramas, or stages of life as individual's dharma. These are:[79] (1) brahmacārya, the life of preparation as a student, (2) gṛhastha, the life of the householder with family and other social roles, (3) vānprastha or aranyaka, the life of the forest-dweller, transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and (4) sannyāsa, the life of giving away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion to moksa, spiritual matters. Patrick Olivelle suggests that "ashramas represented life choices rather than sequential steps in the life of a single individual" and the vanaprastha stage was added before renunciation over time, thus forming life stages.[80]

The four stages of life complete the four human strivings in life, according to Hinduism.[81] Dharma enables the individual to satisfy the striving for stability and order, a life that is lawful and harmonious, the striving to do the right thing, be good, be virtuous, earn religious merit, be helpful to others, interact successfully with society. The other three strivings are Artha – the striving for means of life such as food, shelter, power, security, material wealth, and so forth; Kama – the striving for sex, desire, pleasure, love, emotional fulfilment, and so forth; and Moksa – the striving for spiritual meaning, liberation from life-rebirth cycle, self-realisation in this life, and so forth. The four stages are neither independent nor exclusionary in Hindu dharma.[81]

Dharma and poverty

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According to Adam Bowles,[82] Shatapatha Brahmana verse 11.1.6.24 links social prosperity and dharma through water. It claims that waters come from rains; when rains are abundant, there is prosperity on the earth, and this prosperity enables people to follow Dharma – moral and lawful life. In times of distress, of drought, of poverty, everything suffers, including relations between human beings and the human ability to live according to dharma.[82]

In Rajadharmaparvan 91.34-8, the relationship between poverty and dharma reaches a full circle. A land with less moral and lawful life suffers distress, and as distress rises it causes more immoral and unlawful life, which further increases distress.[82][83] Those in power must follow the raja dharma (that is, dharma of rulers), because this enables the society and the individual to follow dharma and achieve prosperity.[84]

Dharma and law

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Main article: Hindu law

The notion of dharma as duty or propriety is found in India's ancient legal and religious texts. Common examples of such use are pitri dharma (meaning a person's duty as a father), putra dharma (a person's duty as a son), raj dharma (a person's duty as a king) and so forth.[28] In Hindu philosophy, justice, social harmony, and happiness requires that people live per dharma. The Dharmashastra is a record of these guidelines and rules.[85] The available evidence suggest India once had a large collection of dharma related literature (sutras, shastras); four of the sutras survive and these are now referred to as Dharmasutras.[71] Along with laws of Manu in Dharmasutras, exist parallel and different compendium of laws, such as the laws of Narada and other ancient scholars.[86][87] These different and conflicting law books are neither exclusive, nor do they supersede other sources of dharma in Hinduism. These Dharmasutras include instructions on education of the young, their rites of passage, customs, religious rites and rituals, marital rights and obligations, death and ancestral rites, laws and administration of justice, crimes, punishments, rules and types of evidence, duties of a king, as well as morality.[71]

Buddhism

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See also: Buddhist paths to liberation

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Buddhism held the Hindu view of Dharma as "cosmic law", as in the working of Karma.[1] The term Dharma (Pali: dhamma) later came to refer to the teachings of the Buddha (pariyatti); the practice (paṭipatti) of the Buddha's teachings is then comprehended as Dharma.[1][88] In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for "phenomena".[88][2]

Buddha's teachings

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For practising Buddhists, references to dharma (dhamma in Pali) particularly as "the dharma", generally means the teachings of the Buddha, commonly known throughout the East as Buddhadharma. It includes especially the discourses on the fundamental principles (such as the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path), as opposed to the parables and to the poems. The Buddha's teachings explain that in order to end suffering, dharma, or the right thoughts, understanding, actions and livelihood, should be cultivated.[89]

The status of dharma is regarded variably by different Buddhist traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate truth, or as the fount of all things which lie beyond the "three realms" (Sanskrit: tridhatu) and the "wheel of becoming" (Sanskrit: bhavachakra). Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see the dharma as the essence of the "84,000 different aspects of the teaching" (Tibetan: chos-sgo brgyad-khri bzhi strong) that the Buddha gave to various types of people, based upon their individual propensities and capabilities.

Dharma refers not only to the sayings of the Buddha, but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various schools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and to expound upon the Buddha's teachings. For others still, they see the dharma as referring to the "truth", or the ultimate reality of "the way that things really are" (Tibetan: Chö).

The dharma is one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism in which practitioners of Buddhism seek refuge, or that upon which one relies for his or her lasting happiness. The Three Jewels of Buddhism are the Buddha, meaning the mind's perfection of enlightenment, the dharma, meaning the teachings and the methods of the Buddha, and the Sangha, meaning the community of practitioners who provide one another guidance and support.

Chan Buddhism

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Dharma is employed in Chan Buddhism in a specific context in relation to transmission of authentic doctrine, understanding and bodhi; recognised in dharma transmission.

Theravada Buddhism

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In Theravada Buddhism obtaining ultimate realisation of the dhamma is achieved in three phases; learning, practising and realising.[90]

In Pali:

  1. Pariyatti – the learning of the theory of dharma as contained within the suttas of the Pali canon
  2. Patipatti – putting the theory into practice and
  3. Pativedha – when one penetrates the dharma or through experience realises the truth of it.[90]

Jainism

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Main article: Dharma (Jainism)
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The word dharma in Jainism is found in all its key texts. It has a contextual meaning and refers to a number of ideas. In the broadest sense, it means the teachings of the Jinas,[1] or teachings of any competing spiritual school,[91] a supreme path,[92] socio-religious duty,[93] and that which is the highest mangala (holy).[94]

The Tattvartha Sutra, a major Jain text, mentions daśa dharma (lit. 'ten dharmas') with referring to ten righteous virtues: forbearance, modesty, straightforwardness, purity, truthfulness, self-restraint, austerity, renunciation, non-attachment, and celibacy.[95] Ācārya Amṛtacandra, author of the Jain text, Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya writes:[96]

A right believer should constantly meditate on virtues of dharma, like supreme modesty, in order to protect the Self from all contrary dispositions. He should also cover up the shortcomings of others.

— Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya (27)

Dharmāstikāya

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Further information: Dravya

The term dharmāstikāya (Sanskrit: धर्मास्तिकाय) also has a specific ontological and soteriological meaning in Jainism, as a part of its theory of six dravya (substance or a reality). In the Jain tradition, existence consists of jīva (soul, ātman) and ajīva (non-soul, anātman), the latter consisting of five categories: inert non-sentient atomic matter (pudgalāstikāya), space (ākāśa), time (kāla), principle of motion (dharmāstikāya), and principle of rest (adharmāstikāya).[97][98] The use of the term dharmāstikāya to mean motion and to refer to an ontological sub-category is peculiar to Jainism, and not found in the metaphysics of Buddhism and various schools of Hinduism.[98]

Sikhism

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Main article: Sikhism
Sikhism

For Sikhs, the word dharam (Punjabi: ਧਰਮ, romanized: dharam) means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice.[99] Guru Granth Sahib connotes dharma as duty and moral values.[100] The 3HO movement in Western culture, which has incorporated certain Sikh beliefs, defines Sikh Dharma broadly as all that constitutes religion, moral duty and way of life.[101]

In Sangam literature

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Main article: Sangam literature

Several works of the Sangam and post-Sangam period, many of which are of Hindu or Jain origin, emphasizes on dharma. Most of these texts are based on aṟam, the Tamil term for dharma. The ancient Tamil moral text of the Tirukkuṟaḷ or Kural, a text probably of Jain or Hindu origin,[102][103][104][105][106] despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on dharma (aram), artha (porul), and kama (inpam),[107][108] is completely and exclusively based on aṟam.[109] The Naladiyar, a Jain text of the post-Sangam period, follows a similar pattern as that of the Kural in emphasizing aṟam or dharma.[110]

Dharma in symbols

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The original Lion Capital of Ashoka, from Sarnath. It originally supported a large dharmachakra (the earliest symbol of the Dharma) on the top (which has been reconstructed here).
The wheel in the centre of India's flag symbolises Ashoka's dhamma.

The importance of dharma to Indian civilization is illustrated by India's decision in 1947 to include the Ashoka Chakra, a depiction of the dharmachakra (the "wheel of dharma"), as the central motif on its flag.[111]

See also

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Notes

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References

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Sources

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Further reading

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Dharma

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Dharma (: धर्म; : धम्म) is a central concept in the Indic traditions of , , , denoting the underlying order of the , the duties that sustain social and natural harmony, and the moral principles guiding individual conduct toward righteousness and liberation. Derived from the verbal root dhṛ ("to uphold" or "to support"), the term originally signified the eternal laws (dharmāṇi sanatā) that maintain universal stability, as reflected in the where it aligns with , the principle of cosmic truth and regularity. In , dharma manifests as svadharma—personal duties tied to one's (varṇa) and life stage (āśrama)—prescribing ethical actions to preserve societal order and fulfill karmic obligations. reinterprets it as dhamma, the Buddha's teachings encapsulating the natural of impermanence, , and non-self, serving as the path to enlightenment. In , dharma emphasizes non-violence (ahiṃsā) and ethical discipline as the means to purify the soul and escape the cycle of rebirth, while in , it underscores righteous living, honest labor, and devotion to the divine will. These traditions share dharma's causal role in upholding reality through adherence to truth-derived duties, though interpretations vary, with no single universal doctrine dominating across them.

Etymological and Conceptual Foundations

Etymology

The term dharma derives from the root dhṛ ("to hold," "to support," or "to uphold"), traceable to the dʰer- ("to hold firmly, support"), which conveys foundational stability and maintenance. This root yields cognates such as Latin firmus ("firm, stable," from dʰer-mo-) and Greek thrónos ("throne," implying a supported seat of power). In , the nominal form dhárman- (neuter) or dharmán- (masculine) emerges as a thematic , denoting that which upholds or establishes order. Earliest attestations of dharma occur in the Rigveda, composed around 1500–1200 BCE, where it signifies the sustaining forces or eternal laws (dharmāṇi sanā́tāni) that maintain cosmic harmony, paralleling ṛta as the intrinsic order of truth and regularity in the universe. In this context, dharma often describes ritual acts or divine ordinances that reinforce the stability of natural and sacrificial processes against chaos. During the middle and late Vedic periods (circa 1200–500 BCE), dharma's semantics evolve from primary emphases on ritual sustenance and cosmic fixtures to broader connotations of normative decree, moral propriety, and obligatory conduct, as seen in texts like the Brāhmaṇas and early Upaniṣads. This shift marks dharma as a bridging impersonal order with human agency in upholding societal and ethical structures.

Core Definitions and Polysemy

Dharma denotes the foundational principle of upholding or sustaining the inherent order of existence, serving as the cosmic that preserves the stability of and universal structures. This sense emphasizes dharma's role in maintaining reality's coherence, where deviations disrupt causal sequences leading to disorder. constitutes another core dimension, defined as deliberate conformity to this order through actions that align individual conduct with observable patterns, thereby averting in moral and physical domains. represents the practical application, encompassing obligations tailored to sustain equilibrium within specific relational contexts, functioning as behavioral rules that enforce reciprocity and prevent systemic breakdown. The concept's polysemy arises from its dual operation across universal and particular registers, enabling adaptive yet principled responses to varying scales of order. Universal dharma, often termed sanatana dharma, articulates timeless axioms governing all entities, independent of temporal or situational variance, as the immutable framework underpinning cosmic and ethical invariance. Particular dharma, or svadharma, contextualizes these universals into individualized mandates, derived from positional factors like role or circumstance, ensuring that localized duties reinforce rather than contradict the broader causal architecture. This layered structure mitigates conflicts between general principles and specific exigencies, prioritizing alignment with sustaining forces over rigid uniformity. Causally, dharma operates as a regulatory mechanism fostering social cohesion and personal efficacy by linking adherence to outcomes of and , with non-conformance yielding and decline. Empirical indicators include the protracted of Indic civilizational frameworks, which have withstood successive invasions and transformations while retaining ethical continuities traceable to at least 1500 BCE, attributable in part to dharma's embedded incentives for mutual and adaptive . This resilience underscores dharma's function not as abstract ideal but as a verifiable contributor to long-term societal viability, where collective fidelity to order-preserving norms correlates with reduced internal fragmentation.

Historical Development

Pre-Vedic and Vedic Origins

The concept of dharma emerges in the earliest Vedic texts as a principle integral to upholding , the objective cosmic order governing natural cycles, seasonal rhythms, and efficacy, with the dated to circa 1500–1200 BCE based on linguistic and archaeological correlations. In these hymns, dharma—derived from the verbal dhṛ meaning "to uphold" or "sustain"—denotes the stable, supportive force that maintains against chaos, often manifested through precise sacrificial actions (yajña) that align human conduct with universal regularity. This linkage positions dharma not as abstract but as causal mechanism ensuring the perpetuation of order, where deviations invite disorder (anṛta)./5_Anantasri.pdf) Textual evidence from the records dharma approximately 56 times, frequently in contexts intertwining it with satyam (truth as foundational ), portraying both as emergent from primordial austerity to regulate post-creational laws./5_Anantasri.pdf) For instance, cosmogonic passages describe and its sustaining dharma as arising after the initial undifferentiated state, imposing structure on phenomena like day-night alternation and moral reciprocity, thereby extending cosmic regularity to nascent social norms among Vedic communities. This formulation underscores a realist : dharma affirms verifiable, law-like invariance in , reliant on empirical of natural patterns rather than subjective whim. Pre-Vedic cosmological precursors to dharma lack direct attestation due to the oral-pre-literate nature of earlier traditions, but conceptual affinities appear in reconstructed proto-Indo-Iranian motifs of ordered creation, where ritual sustenance of harmony parallels Avestan aša (truth-order), suggesting continuity from migratory steppe cultures into the Indian subcontinent around 2000 BCE. However, Vedic texts prioritize ṛta's self-evident governance over speculative anthropogeny, with dharma as ritual enactment countering disruptive forces. In contrast to māyā—depicted in Rigvedic hymns as the gods' dynamic, illusory crafting power (e.g., Indra's shape-shifting feats)—dharma embodies enduring stability, rejecting relativism by grounding human and divine agency in unyielding causal laws observable in outcomes and ecological consistency. This distinction establishes dharma's primacy in Vedic realism, where truth (satyam) and order (ṛta) demand conformity for coherence, prefiguring ethical imperatives without later metaphysical overlays.

Upanishadic and Brahmanical Expansions

In the , composed circa 700 BCE, dharma evolves from Vedic ritual prescriptions to an internalized ethical and metaphysical principle embodying cosmic order and interdependence. The text portrays dharma as the cohesive force binding disparate elements, where "this (dharma) is like to all beings, and all beings are like to this ," highlighting mutual sustenance among phenomena. This interdependence underscores dharma's role as a self-evident truth (), guiding conduct through observable effects rather than exclusive reliance on priestly rites, with its essence tied to the immortal (ātman) pervading all. Dharma here functions as an inner directive for ethical alignment with universal reality, distinct from external sacrifices, as it consists of scriptural injunctions (śruti and smṛti), practiced virtues, and invisible potencies (apūrva) that manifest empirically in worldly stability, such as the earth's firmness. This shift reflects causal realism: ethical adherence sustains harmony by integrating individual actions with broader reciprocity, fostering piety akin to ordered devotion grounded in the observed unity of existence over ritual mechanics alone. Brahmanical expansions in the Dharma-sūtras, dating from approximately 600 BCE to 200 BCE, further systematize dharma by codifying varna-specific duties, linking abstract ethics to practical social functions for empirical stability. Works like the Gautama Dharma-sūtra delineate obligations—Brahmins for teaching and rituals, Kshatriyas for protection, Vaiśyas for production, and Śūdras for service—positing these as reciprocal roles derived from qualities (guṇa) and actions (karma), which prevent disorder by specializing labor and upholding societal cohesion. Such prescriptions aim at causal outcomes: adherence yields observed harmony in ancient communities, mirroring cosmic principles and averting fragmentation through structured interdependence.

Epic and Puranic Formulations

In the Indian epics, particularly the Mahabharata and , dharma is dramatized through narratives of moral dilemmas known as dharma-samkata, where characters confront conflicting duties that underscore dharma's context-dependent application rather than rigid universals. These stories illustrate dharma as a pragmatic framework responsive to individual roles, social positions, and foreseeable consequences of actions, prioritizing causal outcomes over abstract ideals. For instance, in the , faces a dharma-samkata between personal affection for and his as king, ultimately prioritizing public welfare by adhering to societal expectations of royal conduct, even at personal cost. Similarly, the abounds with such conflicts, as seen in Yudhishthira's adherence to truthfulness leading to unintended harms, revealing dharma's inherent tensions in real-world application. Central to the Mahabharata's formulation is the Bhagavad Gita, embedded in its Bhishma Parva, where Krishna advises Arjuna amid his battlefield reluctance to fight kin. Krishna emphasizes svadharma—one's duty aligned with inherent qualities (svabhava) and social role—over performative adherence to others' duties, stating that imperfect fulfillment of one's own dharma surpasses perfect execution of another's. This counsel prioritizes action (karma) detached from ego-driven results, recognizing causal chains where inaction or misaligned duty disrupts cosmic and social order. Scholarly estimates date the Gita's composition between the 5th century BCE and 2nd century CE, reflecting its evolution within epic layers. Such teachings highlight dharma's realism: duties vary by varna (e.g., a kshatriya's martial obligation) and circumstance, with ethical choices evaluated by long-term effects rather than immediate sentiment. Puranic texts expand epic dharma by integrating it with (devotion), adapting it for broader accessibility beyond elite ritualism. In the , dharma is framed as upheld through loving surrender to , where devotional acts fulfill duties while transcending karmic binds, making ethical conduct viable for masses via personal divine relation rather than scholastic mastery. This synthesis renders dharma practical for varied practitioners, emphasizing bhakti's role in resolving dilemmas through divine guidance. Epic and Puranic conceptions influenced governance, paralleling rajadharma in Kautilya's (circa 300 BCE), which mandates kings to protect subjects, administer justice, and prioritize collective welfare—mirroring epic kings like or whose duties extend to societal stability over personal gain. These texts evidence dharma's operationalization in statecraft, where rulers' adherence ensures order amid conflicting imperatives.

Dharma in Hinduism

Scriptural Sources in Vedas and Smritis

In the Vedic corpus, dharma emerges as a sustaining , the cosmic order governing natural and moral phenomena, with yajña (ritual sacrifice) serving as the primary mechanism for its maintenance. The uses dhárman to signify supportive ordinances or laws that align human actions with this eternal rhythm, as seen in hymns invoking deities to enforce righteous conduct amid chaos. The extends this by detailing procedural formulas for sacrifices, positioning dharma as karma-mārga, the path of dutiful action that ritually upholds against disorder. The incorporates dharma into protective rites and charms, broadening it to include spells for harmony in daily life and societal stability. Smṛti texts systematize Vedic dharma into codified duties, with the Manusmṛti (composed circa 200 BCE to 200 CE) exemplifying this by enumerating sources such as (Vedic revelation), smṛti itself, ācāra (practices of the virtuous), and ātmatuṣṭi (personal conviction aligned with conscience). This text frames dharma as an operational ethic derived from primordial injunctions, emphasizing its role in guiding conduct to preserve cosmic and social equilibrium without deviation from revealed norms. Other Smṛtis, like the , reinforce this by compiling ritual and ethical prescriptions, ensuring dharma's applicability across contexts while rooted in Vedic primacy. The Pūrva Mīmāṃsā school exegetically prioritizes dharma as the realm of Vedic rituals (karma-kāṇḍa), interpreting it as eternal injunctions (vidhi) that generate apūrva, a subtle potency yielding fruits like heavenly rewards through precise observance. This ritual-centric view posits dharma's efficacy in action over speculation, with texts like Jaimini's Mīmāṃsā Sūtras (circa 300 BCE) arguing that Vedic commands alone validate duties, dismissing deities as nominal for ritual validity. In synthesis with Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta), dharma acquires metaphysical depth, as articulated in Śaṅkara's commentaries, where ethical adherence aligns the practitioner with , transcending ritual to realize non-dual essence while provisional duties aid preparatory purification. Patañjali's Yoga Sūtras (compiled circa 2nd–4th century CE) integrate dharma into practical discipline via (universal restraints like non-violence and truthfulness) and (personal observances such as purity and contentment), forming the foundational limbs for citta-śuddhi (mind purification) essential to yoga's soteriological path. These precepts operationalize dharma as self-restraint and cultivation, countering kleśas (afflictions) to facilitate samādhi, with their observance yielding both worldly harmony and progress toward (isolation of pure consciousness).

Varnashrama Dharma and Social Order

Varnashrama Dharma constitutes the structural framework within Hindu tradition for organizing society through the division of labor into four varnas (functional classes) and four ashrams (life stages), each with prescribed duties aimed at maintaining interdependence and order. The varna system originates in the Rigveda's (10.90), which metaphorically describes the cosmic (primordial being) from whose mouth emerge the Brahmins, tasked with teaching, ritual performance, and knowledge preservation; from whose arms the Kshatriyas, responsible for , , and warfare; from whose thighs the Vaishyas, focused on , , and generation; and from whose feet the Shudras, dedicated to manual labor and service to the other varnas. This delineation aligns societal roles with inherent aptitudes, fostering specialization that sustains collective welfare without centralized coercion. The ashrama system complements varna by sequencing individual duties across life phases: emphasizes celibate study under a to acquire Vedic and self-discipline; Grihastha involves , sustenance, and economic contribution to support the other ashrams through alms and progeny; Vanaprastha entails gradual withdrawal from worldly affairs for mentoring and forest-dwelling contemplation; and prioritizes renunciation and pursuit of (liberation). Together, varnashrama prescribes duties contingent on both functional aptitude and temporal stage, theorizing that such alignment minimizes conflict by channeling human inclinations toward productive ends rather than indiscriminate ambition. Empirical records indicate this system's contribution to societal cohesion in pre-colonial , where decentralized kingdoms maintained continuity over millennia—from the circa 1500 BCE through the Empire's peak in the 4th-5th centuries CE—despite external invasions, yielding advancements in (e.g., Aryabhata's heliocentric insights in 499 CE) and textual preservation without widespread internal upheavals. Oral transmission of the remained intact for over 3,000 years, verifiable through phonetic consistency across recensions, attributable to specialization in memorization and ritual. In contrast, historical egalitarian experiments, such as certain post-colonial collectivizations, correlated with economic disruptions and famines (e.g., India's 1960s shortages amid policy shifts away from traditional agrarian roles), underscoring the causal efficacy of aptitude-based specialization in averting resource misallocation. Critiques portraying varnashrama as rigidly hereditary overlook textual provisions for mobility based on guna (innate qualities) and karma (actions), as articulated in the 4.13: "The four categories of occupations were created by Me according to people’s qualities and activities." Instances include Vishwamitra's elevation from to through ascetic rigor and Valmiki's transformation from a hunter to sage via penance, demonstrating exceptions for demonstrated aptitude over natal origin. This flexibility, rooted in functional merit, underpinned the system's resilience, enabling knowledge custodianship amid dynastic changes and averting the societal observed in less stratified ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia's frequent collapses. The Dharma-shastras constitute a corpus of ancient Indian texts that codify positive law, deriving authority from scriptural smriti traditions and established customs to regulate social conduct, familial relations, and dispute resolution. These treatises, including works attributed to Manu and Yajnavalkya, prescribe enforceable norms on inheritance, contracts, and penalties, functioning as a jurisprudence that integrates moral imperatives with practical governance. Unlike purely revelatory shruti, the Dharma-shastras adapt Vedic principles to societal exigencies, emphasizing judicial processes where kings or assemblies adjudicated based on evidence and precedent. Central to this legal framework is dandaniti, the science of and state enforcement, which views (coercive sanction) as essential for upholding dharma against violations that disrupt cosmic and social order. In Kautilya's (circa 4th century BCE, with later redactions), dandaniti integrates dharma with , mandating rulers to impose graduated penalties—fines, , or —proportional to offenses, thereby deterring chaos and preserving societal stability. This approach posits not merely as retribution but as a corrective mechanism aligned with karma, where state intervention mirrors natural causal consequences to enforce ethical compliance. Ethically, dharma prioritizes moral law within the purusharthas—the quartet of human aims encompassing dharma (righteousness), (prosperity), (pleasure), and (liberation)—serving as the foundational restraint to prevent the unchecked pursuit of material goals from inducing societal decay. Texts assert that subordinating and to dharma sustains long-term order, as ethical lapses erode trust and invite retribution through violated causal chains, evidenced in scriptural warnings of dynastic collapse absent righteous rule. This prioritization fostered enduring traditions of communal trust, where customary adjudication minimized disputes without expansive bureaucracies, contrasting with critiques of inherent inequalities in varnashrama frameworks. Criticisms portraying dharma-based systems as perpetuating overlook empirical patterns where traditional social controls correlated with lower reported deviance; for instance, post-colonial declines in familial and caste-based oversight paralleled rises in cognizable offenses, from 367.5 per 100,000 in 2014 to 379.3 in 2017, suggesting dharma's integrative contributed to restraint in pre-modern contexts. Such mechanisms, rooted in reciprocal duties, empirically supported lower prevalence in cohesive communities adhering to scriptural norms, countering narratives of systemic by highlighting functional stability over egalitarian ideals unsubstantiated by historical data.

Intersections with Life Stages and Poverty

In Hindu conceptions of dharma, the ashramas delineate sequential life stages, each imposing specific duties to harmonize individual conduct with universal order and personal evolution. The ashrama, typically from initiation around age eight to twenty-five, prescribes , rigorous Vedic study, and subservience to a , cultivating intellectual discipline and moral foundation essential for subsequent phases. The grihastha ashrama, encompassing marriage and householding until about age fifty, mandates economic productivity, family sustenance, and societal contributions through (wealth) acquisition balanced by ethical restraints, positioning it as the pillar supporting the other ashramas via resource provision. Vanaprastha follows, involving partial withdrawal to forest retreats for detachment from material ties, ritual mentoring of kin, and preparatory austerity, bridging worldly obligations with spiritual focus. , the final renunciation, demands complete abnegation of possessions and relations, dedicating existence to through meditation, non-violence, and transcendence of ego, achievable only after fulfilling prior duties. Dharma's economic ethics intersect these stages pragmatically, emphasizing self-reliant productivity in grihastha to generate surplus for dana (charity), a core virtue classified among the highest sacrifices, particularly obligatory for householders to aid the destitute, ascetics, and scholars. Dana prescriptions stipulate gifts to patra (deserving recipients)—those adhering to their svadharma, such as diligent students or performers of rites—to alleviate immediate poverty while reinforcing dutiful behavior, as indiscriminate giving to the undeserving (apatra dana) is deemed counterproductive, potentially fostering vice or dependency by disrupting causal incentives for effort. This duty-based approach, rooted in texts like the Bhagavad Gita (17.20), prioritizes long-term societal stability over egalitarian redistribution, with grihasthas expected to allocate portions of income—historically one-sixth to gods, one-sixth to guests and kin, and the rest to sustain self and dana—ensuring aid sustains productive cycles rather than eroding them. Critiques of ashramic stratification as perpetuating inequality overlook dharma's provisions for fluidity through (austerity and disciplined effort), enabling exceptional individuals to transcend birth-assigned roles by manifesting superior qualities, as varnashrama originally emphasized (aptitude) and karma (action) over rigid . Historical and genetic evidence supports such mobility, with inter-caste mixing indicating upward shifts among middle and upper groups via merit-based assimilation, countering later ossified interpretations. In practice, community mechanisms like festival anna dana (food distribution) and temple endowments provided targeted relief tied to participation, yielding empirically resilient support networks that promoted upward striving over welfare passivity, as evidenced by sustained agrarian and mercantile in pre-colonial Hindu polities. This framework underscores dharma's causal realism: mitigation succeeds through incentivized across stages, not abstracted equity, fostering collective advancement grounded in observable human variances.

Dharma in Buddhism

In the Buddha's Teachings and Pali Canon

In the Pali Canon, dhamma refers to the Buddha's doctrine revealing the conditioned nature of reality and the path to liberation from suffering. The Tipiṭaka, the 's three baskets—, Sutta, and Abhidhamma—preserves discourses orally transmitted from the Buddha's time (circa 5th century BCE) and first written down around 100 BCE in . Central to this dhamma is the (SN 56.11), the Buddha's first discourse, which sets forth the : (dukkha) inherent in birth, aging, death, and clinging; its origin in craving and ignorance; its cessation through relinquishing attachments; and the as the method—right view, resolve, speech, action, livelihood, effort, , and concentration—to realize nirvana. This path operates causally, with ethical conduct (sīla), mental development (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā) sequentially undermining the roots of . Buddhist dhamma diverges from Vedic dharma's eternal order by foregrounding impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), and absence of self (), explained via dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda), where phenomena arise interdependently from conditions like leading to formations, , and eventual rebirth. Unlike ritualistic prescriptions, precepts such as abstaining from killing, theft, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxicants function provisionally to foster clarity for insight meditation, which empirically verifies causal chains and debunks speculative metaphysics. The Buddha urged personal testing of teachings, as in the Kalama Sutta, prioritizing experiential discernment over tradition.

Variations in Theravada and Mahayana

In Buddhism, Dhamma constitutes the unchanging truth of the Buddha's doctrine as codified in the Tipitaka, comprising the Pitaka's monastic code for ethical conduct, the Sutta Pitaka's discourses on the path to liberation, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka's analytical framework dissecting phenomena into ultimate dhammas—irreducible elements of mind and matter—to facilitate insight into impermanence, suffering, and non-self, culminating in arahantship as the goal of personal enlightenment. Adherence to rules, numbering 227 for bhikkhus and 311 for bhikkhunis, ensures communal harmony and supports meditative practice toward nirvana, with Abhidhamma providing a rigorous, taxonomic method to deconstruct conditioned reality without reliance on provisional interpretations. This approach prioritizes textual fidelity to early strata of teachings, traceable to councils like the Third Buddhist Council in 250 BCE, emphasizing individual effort over collective or adaptive schemas. Mahayana traditions, emerging as a distinct movement around the 1st century BCE amid diversification of , reconceive Dharma as an inclusive cosmic principle encompassing not only historical teachings but also provisional truths (samvriti-satya) leading to ultimate (sunyata), with —skillful, context-sensitive expedients—allowing adaptation of precepts and practices to suit varying practitioner capacities and cultural milieus. Central to this is the bodhisattva path, outlined in sutras like the (dated circa 1st–2nd century CE), where aspirants commit to six or ten perfections (paramitas), including boundless compassion (karuna), postponing personal nirvana to aid all sentient beings toward collective , viewing the ideal as subordinate or incomplete. This framework, evident in texts such as the Bodhisattvabhumi (3rd century CE), integrates Dharma with vows like those of Avalokiteshvara, prioritizing relational ethics over solitary analysis. These variations yield tensions: upholds Dhamma's immutability through canonical rigor, critiquing 's proliferation of sutras—absent from early recensions—as introducing relativism that risks diluting discipline via upaya's flexibility, potentially undermining causal efficacy in liberation by subordinating absolute truth to expedient narratives. Conversely, counters that 's arhat focus neglects the Buddha's purported broader intent for universal salvation, fostering innovations that propelled Buddhism's adaptation across by 500 CE, though at the cost of doctrinal divergence from precedents. Empirical spread underscores 's cultural resilience, with retaining prominence in and via monastic lineages preserving pre-Mahayana forms.

Chan and Modern Pragmatic Interpretations

Chan Buddhism, originating in China during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), interprets dhamma (Dharma) as an innate, direct realization of one's Buddha-nature, accessible through sudden enlightenment (dunwu) rather than protracted scriptural study or ritual observance. This approach, epitomized in the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch—attributed to Huineng and compiled around 780 CE—posits that true insight arises from "pointing directly to the human mind," seeing into one's original nature without intermediary doctrines or gradual progression. The sutra's core teaching equates Dharma with freedom from attachment, emphasizing embodied practice over textual exegesis, as Huineng declares the mind itself as the locus of enlightenment, rendering external scriptures secondary or even obstructive for those of sharp faculties. This "special transmission outside the scriptures" (bujing chuanshuo) underscores Chan's radical prioritization of experiential verification, where dhamma manifests as unmediated awareness of non-duality, challenging scholastic reliance on sutras prevalent in other Buddhist schools. Influenced by earlier Indian Mahayana notions of tathagatagarbha (Buddha-embryo), Chan's Dharma praxis employs koans, public case dialogues (gong'an), and seated meditation (zazen) to provoke abrupt insight, bypassing conceptual frameworks that might obscure the Dharma's essence as empty yet luminous mind-ground. Historical records, such as the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952 CE), document Chan lineages tracing back to Bodhidharma (5th–6th century CE), who transmitted wordless mind-to-mind instruction, reinforcing Dharma as an orthopraxic transmission verifiable only through personal awakening rather than doctrinal assent. Critics within broader Buddhism have noted Chan's potential for antinomianism, yet its emphasis on pragmatic efficacy—judging teachings by fruits like ethical spontaneity and perceptual clarity—aligns with empirical discernment of Dharma's causal efficacy in alleviating delusion. In the 21st century, the Pragmatic Dharma movement, coalescing in online forums like Dharma Overground around 2010, extends this Chan-derived directism by subjecting meditation outcomes to rigorous, self-reported empirical testing, mapping insight stages (e.g., the ñanas of Theravada visuddhimagga) against verifiable phenomenological shifts rather than untested faith in traditional endpoints. Proponents, including figures like Daniel Ingram, advocate "pragmatic" adaptations that strip ritualistic accretions from Western Buddhism, critiquing "mushroom culture" sanghas for prioritizing feel-good experiences over hard-won fruitions like stream-entry, defined as irreversible insight into impermanence, suffering, and non-self. This movement demands evidence-based progress—tracking attainments via community-vetted reports—echoing Chan's insistence on results over orthodoxy, while questioning unexamined soteriological assumptions in popularized mindfulness, such as conflating relaxation with genuine Dharma realization. By 2020s discussions, it had influenced hybrid practices blending vipassana with intensive retreats, fostering a democratized, outcome-oriented Dharma verifiable through replicable practitioner data, though skeptics argue it risks reductionism by overemphasizing maps at the expense of holistic ethical integration.

Dharma in Jainism

Dharmastkaya and Cosmological Role

In Jain metaphysics, Dharmastikaya constitutes one of the six eternal dravyas, or fundamental substances, comprising the alongside (sentient beings), pudgala (matter), adharmastikaya (medium of rest), akasastikaya (space), and kala (time). Defined as the non-sentient medium of motion, Dharmastikaya pervades the except in lokakasa's upper and lower limits, providing the supportive condition for the locomotion of jivas and pudgalas without itself possessing motive force or form. Its intrinsic guna enables potential acceleration, akin to water facilitating fish movement, ensuring dynamic interactions occur through inherent capacities rather than external agency. This substance's cosmological function underpins the materialist framework of karmic processes, where pudgala-derived karma particles bind to and release from jivas via motion-assisted adhesion, obviating any for causal explanation. The , compiled by Umasvati between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, delineates Dharmastikaya among the five astikayas—extended entities—emphasizing its role in sustaining universal activity through eternal, uncreated permanence. Absent Dharmastikaya, motion ceases, as noted in descriptions of boundary regions devoid of it, highlighting its necessity for the cyclical, self-regulating . Jain logic validates Dharmastikaya's attributes via syadvada, the principle of conditional predication rooted in , asserting that its motion-enabling capacity holds relatively—from the viewpoint of supportive medium—while inert and non-initiating from others, thus reconciling apparent paradoxes through multifaceted analysis without absolutism. This epistemological approach grounds the substance's verifiability in rigorous, non-contradictory reasoning, aligning with observable causal realism in karma's particulate mechanics over supernatural impositions.

Ethical Duties and Liberation Path

In Jainism, the ethical duties central to dharma are encapsulated in the , or three jewels: samyak darśana (right faith), samyak jñāna (right knowledge), and samyak cāritra (right conduct), which together form the path to kevala jñāna (omniscience) and ultimate liberation (mokṣa). Right faith involves unwavering conviction in the teachings of the Jinas and the eternal truths of the universe, free from doubt or attachment to false beliefs. Right knowledge entails comprehensive understanding of the soul, karma, and the principles of bondage and liberation, acquired through scriptural study and direct insight. These prerequisites enable right conduct, the practical observance of vows that purify the soul by eradicating karmic influx. Ahimsa, or absolute non-violence, stands as the paramount ethical duty, extending to thoughts, words, and actions toward all living beings, regardless of social distinctions like varna, emphasizing its universal applicability. This principle underpins the five major vows (mahāvrata) for ascetics—non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, , and non-possession—and their milder lay counterparts (anuvrata), demanding meticulous practices such as filtering water, sweeping paths to avoid harming microbes, and strict to minimize ecological disruption. Ascetic rigor intensifies these duties, with monks and nuns enduring extreme self-discipline, including prolonged fasting and renunciation of material comforts, to burn away karmic particles obstructing kevala jñāna. Historically, this rigorous ethical framework has fostered communities with notably low incidences of interpersonal , as Jains predominantly pursued non-harmful occupations like , avoiding and warfare that could inadvertently cause widespread harm to forms. Such adaptations enabled Jain survival as a minority amid dominant cultures, balancing ascetic ideals with pragmatic societal integration. Critics, however, have labeled certain practices, such as sallekhanā (voluntary unto death in or advanced age), as extremist or akin to , prompting legal debates in modern where courts have occasionally intervened, though Jain apologists defend it as a controlled cessation of intake to prevent future karmic harm without active suicide. These ethical duties, when perfectly aligned in the , culminate in the destruction of all karma, attaining siddha state beyond rebirth.

Dharma in Sikhism

Synthesis with Guru Teachings

In Sikh teachings, Dharma is understood as conformity to hukam, the divine command or will of the one formless Creator (Ik Onkar), as expounded in the Guru Granth Sahib, whose core verses span the 15th to early 18th centuries and were first compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604 CE. This synthesis reframes traditional Indic notions of cosmic order and duty—drawing selectively from Bhakti devotionalism and ethical imperatives—into a monotheistic framework where righteousness arises not from ritual observance or social hierarchy but from humble acceptance of God's immanent order governing all creation. Guru Nanak (1469–1539 CE), the founding Guru, emphasized this through verses urging recognition of hukam as the natural law underlying existence, rejecting ascetic withdrawal or caste-based prescriptions in favor of active alignment with divine purpose. Distinct from Hindu varnashrama dharma, Sikh synthesis integrates egalitarianism as intrinsic to divine will, positing that all humans, irrespective of birth, gender, or status, equally reflect the Creator's light and thus share identical obligations to ethical living. Subsequent Gurus, such as Guru Amar Das (1479–1574 CE), reinforced this by institutionalizing practices like langar (communal kitchen), where participants sat in egalitarian rows to symbolize unity under hukam, explicitly banning discriminatory customs like purdah and sati. Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708 CE) culminated this in the 1699 Khalsa initiation, baptizing Sikhs into a disciplined order open to all, where Dharma manifests as fearless adherence to truth amid adversity, blending spiritual discipline with martial readiness. Practically, Guru teachings operationalize Dharma through kirat karni (honest labor) and seva (selfless service), alongside naam japna (meditation on the divine Name) and vand chakna (sharing earnings), forming a holistic path to realize hukam in daily conduct. These duties, rooted in Guru Granth Sahib injunctions against idleness or exploitation, fostered empirical resilience: Sikh communities, practicing collective service and ethical economics, endured systematic Mughal persecutions from the 17th century onward, maintaining cohesion through institutions like sangats (congregations) that distributed resources equitably during famines and invasions. This causal link between hukam-aligned living and communal endurance is evidenced in the survival and expansion of Sikh polity under duress, attributing stability to disciplined obedience rather than mere fatalism.

Practical Applications in Community Life


In Sikh gurdwaras, langar serves as a core practical application of dharma, manifesting through communal kitchens that provide free vegetarian meals to all attendees without regard to caste, religion, or status. This practice, originating with Guru Nanak in the early 16th century, requires diners to sit in rows on the floor, symbolically dismantling social hierarchies and promoting equality as a lived ethical duty. By emphasizing seva (selfless service) in food preparation and distribution, langar reinforces dharma's call to honest labor and sharing, contributing to community cohesion evidenced by its role in sustaining Sikh gatherings during periods of historical adversity. The miri-piri doctrine, formalized by Guru Hargobind upon his ascension in 1606, applies dharma to community defense by harmonizing spiritual guidance with temporal authority, symbolized by dual swords worn by the Guru. This framework cultivates the sant-sipahi (saint-soldier) ethos, where adherents balance meditation and moral living with readiness for miri (worldly power) to protect the vulnerable. In response to Mughal persecution following Guru Arjan's execution that year, it enabled organized resistance, preserving Sikh communal integrity through disciplined martial training integrated with ethical restraint. Criticisms portraying Sikh militancy as inherent aggression overlook the causal role of survival imperatives, as the ethos prioritizes non-violent spiritual discipline while permitting defensive action only under existential threats, thereby sustaining group resilience without devolving into conquest. Historical instances, such as the Khalsa's formation in 1699 amid escalating , demonstrate this balance's efficacy in forging unified, self-reliant communities capable of enduring subjugation.

Comparative and Cross-Traditional Perspectives

Distinction from Religion

Dharma differs fundamentally from the Western concept of religion, which typically refers to organized systems of belief, worship, and doctrine often centered around a personal deity or prophetic revelation. In contrast, dharma denotes the eternal cosmic order (ṛta) and a comprehensive way of life oriented toward fulfilling duties that uphold natural, social, and moral harmony, derived from observable regularities rather than faith-based tenets. While religions may prescribe creeds and rituals for salvation, dharma emphasizes practical alignment with universal principles accessible through reason and experience, transcending sectarian boundaries to encompass ethical conduct applicable across contexts.

Analogies to Western Natural Law

Dharma, understood in its foundational Vedic sense as ṛta—the immutable principle of cosmic harmony and moral regularity that sustains natural processes and human obligations—bears structural analogies to Thomas Aquinas's natural law theory, wherein human reason participates in the eternal divine law to discern objective goods and duties. In the Rigveda, ṛta denotes the self-regulating order observable in celestial cycles, seasonal rhythms, and ethical conduct, enforcing causality through inevitable consequences for deviation, much as Aquinas describes natural law as inclining rational beings toward intrinsic ends like self-preservation, societal order, and rational inquiry, derived from empirical observation of created nature rather than arbitrary decree. Both paradigms emphasize teleological realism, where duties emerge from the causal structure of reality: Dharma requires alignment with ṛta to fulfill varṇa-specific roles that maintain social and existential equilibrium, paralleling Aquinas's precepts that direct actions toward the common good via synderesis, the innate habit of practical reason grasping first principles like "do good and avoid evil." This shared foundation rejects voluntarism, prioritizing verifiable alignments with nature's ends—such as non-harm (ahiṃsā) in Dharma echoing Aquinas's prohibition on unjust killing—over subjective preferences, as deviations disrupt causal harmony in either cyclic or providential frameworks. While Indic cyclic contrasts with Thomistic linear culminating in eschatological , both traditions affirm timeless moral universals binding across contexts, with Dharma's contextual applications (e.g., svadharma) analogous to Aquinas's general principles specifying into particular circumstances via prudential reasoning. Comparative analyses underscore these convergences in causal moral realism, positing ethical duties as empirically grounded imperatives rather than culturally relative constructs. A 2025 conceptual study identifies overlapping universals, such as the obligation to uphold order through , affirming Dharma's alignment with natural law's emphasis on human flourishing via rational conformity to inherent law.

Distinctions Across Indic Traditions

In , dharma is articulated through varṇāśrama-dharma, which delineates duties according to one's varṇa (social division, such as brāhmaṇa for priestly roles or kṣatriya for governance) and āśrama (life stages, including brahmacarya for studentship and for householding), establishing a hierarchical system where individual obligations support collective order and cosmic ṛta (regularity). This personalistic orientation ties ethical conduct to innate qualities (guṇas) and roles, prioritizing societal interdependence over universal . Buddhism, particularly in Theravāda traditions, reconceives dhamma as the Buddha's doctrinal exposition of , encompassing the on suffering (dukkha) and its cessation via the , with anattā (absence of permanent self) rendering it impersonal and non-hierarchical. Unlike Hinduism's role-bound prescriptions, dhammic practice universalizes ethical precepts—such as right view and right livelihood—aimed at epistemological insight into impermanence (anicca), bypassing or stage-specific duties to emphasize direct experiential verification of in suffering's arising and ending. Jainism presents dharma dually: cosmologically as dharmastikāya, an inert medium facilitating motion among the six dravyas (substances) without agency, and ethically as atomistic conduct rooted in ahiṃsā, where eternal jīvas () accumulate karmic particles through actions, demanding meticulous non-harm to minimize bondage in a pluralistic, non-theistic . This contrasts Hinduism's integrated personal-social duties and Buddhism's flux of conditioned phenomena, as Jain ethics granularly classifies beings by sensory capacity (from ekendriya plants to pañcendriya humans) and prescribes vows like aparigraha () for isolating the from material influx. These variances—Hinduism's contextual hierarchy for stability, Buddhism's impersonal deconstruction for liberation from attachment, and Jainism's discrete mechanics for karmic precision—enabled complementary functions in Indic resilience, with hierarchical structures aiding organized defense against invasions (e.g., sustaining knowledge transmission during the 8th–12th century Islamic incursions) and ascetic emphases preserving philosophical depth amid disruptions. Yet, syncretic fusions, such as overlaying Buddhist non-self onto Hindu varṇa duties, have faced critique for eroding tradition-specific causal efficacy, potentially weakening hierarchical incentives for specialization or the rigorous atomism needed for ethical absolutism.

Symbols and Cultural Representations

Iconography like Dharmachakra

The Dharmachakra, known as the Wheel of Dharma, serves as a key visual emblem across Indian traditions, symbolizing the eternal cycle of moral law and righteous order. First prominently featured in the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Emperor Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE), the symbol appears on his rock edicts and monolithic pillars, such as the Lion Capital at Sarnath erected around 250 BCE, where the wheel stands between four Asiatic lions, denoting the dissemination of dharma as ethical governance and non-violence following Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism after the Kalinga War in 261 BCE. In this context, the wheel's spokes—often eight in early depictions—causally represent the propagation of dharma's principles, turning to set moral causality in motion across society, as Ashoka inscribed in his edicts to unify diverse subjects under universal ethics. In Buddhist iconography, the Dharmachakra embodies the Buddha's first sermon at , where he "turned the wheel of dharma," initiating the teachings on the and the , with the wheel's hub signifying discipline, spokes ethical conduct, and rim concentration, thus visually capturing the interdependent causal structure of enlightenment. This symbolism underscores dharma's role in breaking cycles of suffering through precise moral action, as evidenced in early aniconic art at sites like Sanchi and from the 2nd century BCE onward. Hindu iconography extends dharma's visual representation through as a , notably Nila the blue bull, symbolizing unyielding steadfastness and the foundational strength required to uphold cosmic and against chaos. This bovine form draws from Vedic associations of bulls with generative power and stability, reflecting dharma's causal necessity as the immovable base for varna duties and rta (universal law), distinct from transient mounts of other deities. Such depictions emphasize dharma's enduring, non-negotiable nature in maintaining equilibrium, as opposed to anthropomorphic gods with dynamic vehicles.

Presence in Sangam Literature and Regional Expressions

In , spanning approximately 300 BCE to 300 CE, the ethical imperative analogous to dharma manifests as aram, a Tamil term denoting , , and contextual moral conduct. Tolkappiyam, the foundational grammatical treatise, references varnashrama dharma—the Vedic framework of social duties tied to class and life stages—while adapting it to Tamil societal norms, indicating early integration of broader Indic ethical paradigms with indigenous practices. This inclusion underscores aram as a flexible governing personal and communal responsibilities, distinct from later rigid interpretations yet aligned with duties of and equity observed in heroic poems. Central to this expression is the tinai system, which categorizes five ecological zones—kurinji (hills), mullai (forests), marutam (agricultural plains), neytal (seashore), and palai (wasteland)—each prescribing occupation-specific duties, emotional temperaments, and ethical behaviors. For example, mullai associates with shepherding, evoking themes of patient endurance and marital fidelity, while palai evokes hardship and survival ethics amid nomadic raiding. This landscape-ethics linkage, detailed in Tolkappiyam and anthologies like Akananuru, embeds moral obligations within environmental realities, promoting adaptive conduct that mirrors varnashrama's role-based duties but emphasizes ecological harmony over hereditary stratification. Empirical depictions in illustrate aram's role in governance, with bards praising chieftains who dispensed , protected poets, and avoided wanton violence, thereby maintaining tribal alliances and resource distribution in pre-state . Such norms, rooted in observable social mechanisms rather than abstract cosmology, empirically bolstered Dravidian cohesion, as evidenced by the literature's portrayal of enduring kinship ties and equitable warfare codes amid ecological diversity. Regional variants thus localized dharma as pragmatic aram, sustaining societal resilience without reliance on centralized Vedic authority.

Modern Applications and Controversies

Post-Colonial Reinterpretations

In the , British orientalists often distorted dharma by reducing it to a rigid system of -based laws or superstitious rituals, framing Hindu as inherently despotic and antithetical to . Figures like in his 1817 History of British India portrayed traditions, including dharma, as emblematic of barbarism sustained by priestly dominance and irrational customs, influencing colonial policies that codified hierarchies under British law while dismissing broader ethical and cosmic dimensions of dharma as primitive. This orientalist lens, as critiqued in analyses of colonial , essentialized dharma to justify administrative control, ignoring its first-principles basis in natural duties and universal order evident in pre-colonial texts like the . Post-independence debates reflected tensions between reform and preservation of dharma. advocated internal purification, viewing as a corruption antithetical to sanatan dharma's core of non-violence and equality in spirit, urging moral regeneration within the varna framework rather than its dismantlement. In contrast, critiqued dharma as perpetuating caste oppression through scriptural sanction, pushing for constitutional abolition of and eventual conversion away from to escape entrenched hierarchies, as outlined in his 1936 . These positions highlighted a causal divide: Gandhi's preservationist approach aimed to sustain social cohesion via ethical revival, while Ambedkar's radicalism sought structural rupture, influencing ongoing indigenous efforts to reclaim dharma from colonial caricatures. After , Nehruvian emphasized state neutrality toward , often sidelining dharma's integrative role in Indian in favor of Western-inspired and , which critics argue fostered cultural disconnection. Jawaharlal Nehru's writings, such as in (1946), expressed unease with dharma as a mystical constraint on rational , prioritizing over traditional duties. Traditionalist responses, from thinkers like V.D. Savarkar and organizations such as the (founded ), defended dharma as foundational to national unity, countering dilution by promoting its ethical universality against imposed relativism. Empirical indicators of resultant fragmentation include rising urban family dissolution rates—from 1% in the to over 13% by in major cities—and increased interpersonal violence, with data showing a 28% rise in crimes against women from 2016 to 2022, attributed by some analysts to weakened communal bonds once reinforced by dharma-aligned norms.

Political Debates and the 2023 Sanatana Dharma Controversy

In September 2023, , 's Minister for Youth Welfare and Sports Development, spoke at a conference organized by the Tamil Nadu Progressive Writers and Artists Association in , where he likened Sanatana Dharma to diseases such as , dengue, and , stating that it promotes social hierarchy and inequality and thus must be "eradicated" to achieve equality and . The remarks, made on September 2, 2023, drew immediate condemnation from opposition leaders, including Union Home Minister , who equated them to calls for against Hindus, and BJP president , who demanded Udhayanidhi's resignation and accused the DMK government of anti-Hindu bias. Udhayanidhi later clarified that his comments targeted regressive elements within Sanatana Dharma, such as caste-based and opposition to inter-caste marriages, rather than the tradition as a whole, and accused media outlets of misrepresenting his words to incite controversy. Supporters of this view, aligned with Dravidian ideology, argued that Sanatana Dharma inherently upholds archaic hierarchies that hinder merit-based equality and rational progress, positioning its reform or rejection as necessary for eradicating social ills like . Defenders, including Hindu organizations and BJP figures, countered that Sanatana Dharma represents an eternal cosmic order foundational to Indian and ethical conduct, with its principles of and harmony having sustained societal stability for millennia; they viewed the remarks as an existential threat to Hindu continuity, potentially fueling communal discord. The controversy prompted over a dozen FIRs across multiple states under Indian Penal Code sections 153A (promoting enmity between groups), 295A (outraging religious feelings), and 505 (public mischief), leading to Supreme Court intervention by March 2024 to consolidate cases and bar new FIRs without its permission, citing risks of politicized probes. This episode underscored causal tensions in Indian politics between egalitarian reformism—rooted in anti-caste movements—and preservationist stances emphasizing tradition's role in fostering social cohesion; empirical analyses of heritage governance indicate that maintaining cultural continuity correlates with enhanced community trust and socio-economic benefits, such as through tourism revenues from preserved sites, which supported 10-12% of India's GDP pre-pandemic via heritage-linked activities.

Roles in Contemporary Leadership, Sustainability, and Socio-Economic Growth

In recent scholarship, Dharma principles have been adapted to contemporary models, emphasizing , , and in processes. For example, the 2023 analysis of the "three forms of Dharma" proposes a for leaders to integrate personal, organizational, and universal , drawing from ancient texts to address modern challenges. Similarly, the 2025 concept of "Corporate Dharma" advocates reimagining workplaces as sites of ethical transformation rather than mere economic transactions, promoting stewardship and purpose-driven management. Dharma's role in sustainability focuses on fostering coexistence with nature through relational ethics, as explored in post-2020 initiatives like the Dharma & Sustainability Initiative, which links Dharmic traditions to planetary viability and environmental stewardship. In , Dharmic models align traditional wisdom with global challenges, proposing bottom-up community empowerment for , as outlined in 2025 analyses of India's global Dharma framework. Empirical strategies derived from Dharma, such as prioritizing employee and ethical resource use, rank highly in achieving social goals, with studies identifying eight aligned approaches including in . For socio-economic growth, Dharma informs inclusive paradigms like the "Dharmic Economy," introduced in a 2025 paper as a new model for equitable rooted in ancient principles of and non-exploitation. In , a 2023 Dharma framework supports India's (SDGs) implementation by emphasizing diversified social and economic arrangements harmonious with natural diversity, contributing to stability through ethical policy-making. The 2024 "Dharmanomics" model further integrates Kautilyan Dharmic Capitalism, advocating decentralized, rule-based systems for sustainable expansion, evidenced by applications in cooperative enterprises that balance profit with and karma. These approaches counter ethical relativism by grounding global development in causal principles of duty and interdependence, with conferences like the 2025 Oxford Dharma event highlighting intersections with economics and .

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