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Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Pacific Northwest, North Pacific (disambiguation), South Pacific (disambiguation), Pacific (disambiguation), and Western Pacific.

Key Information

Earth's ocean

Main five oceans division:

Further subdivision:

Marginal seas

The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean, or, depending on the definition, to Antarctica in the south, and is bounded by the continents of Asia and Australia in the west and the Americas in the east.

At 165,250,000 square kilometers (63,800,000 square miles) in area (as defined with a southern Antarctic border), the Pacific Ocean is the largest division of the World Ocean and the hydrosphere and covers approximately 46% of Earth's water surface and about 32% of the planet's total surface area, larger than its entire land area (148,000,000 km2 (57,000,000 sq mi)).[1] The centers of both the water hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere, as well as the oceanic pole of inaccessibility, are in the Pacific Ocean. Ocean circulation (caused by the Coriolis effect) subdivides it[2] into two largely independent volumes of water that meet at the equator, the North Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean (or more loosely the South Seas). The Pacific Ocean can also be informally divided by the International Date Line into the East Pacific and the West Pacific, which allows it to be further divided into four quadrants, namely the Northeast Pacific off the coasts of North America, the Southeast Pacific off South America, the Northwest Pacific off Far Eastern/Pacific Asia, and the Southwest Pacific around Oceania.

The Pacific Ocean's mean depth is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet).[3] The Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench, located in the northwestern Pacific, is the deepest known point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,928 meters (35,853 feet).[4] The Pacific also contains the deepest point in the Southern Hemisphere, the Horizon Deep in the Tonga Trench, at 10,823 meters (35,509 feet).[5] The third deepest point on Earth, the Sirena Deep, was also located in the Mariana Trench. It is the warmest ocean, as its temperatures can reach as high as 31°C (88°F) due to it surrounding major and minor Pacific islands, which have a tropical, hot climate.[6]

The Pacific has many major marginal seas, including (listed clockwise from the west) the Philippine Sea, South China Sea, East China Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska, Gulf of California, Tasman Sea, and the Coral Sea.

Etymology

[edit]

In the early 16th century, Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and sighted the great "Southern Sea", which he named Mar del Sur (in Spanish). Afterwards, the ocean's current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1520, as he encountered favorable winds upon reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in Portuguese means 'peaceful sea'.[7][8]

History

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Prehistory

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Across the continents of Asia, Australia and the Americas, more than 25,000 islands, large and small, rise above the surface of the Pacific Ocean. Multiple islands were the shells of former active volcanoes that have lain dormant for thousands of years. Close to the equator, without vast areas of blue ocean, are a dot of atolls that have over intervals of time been formed by seamounts as a result of tiny coral islands strung in a ring within surroundings of a central lagoon.

Early migrations

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Main articles: Peopling of Southeast Asia and Austronesian peoples
Model of a Fijian drua, an example of an Austronesian vessel with a double-canoe (catamaran) hull and a crab claw sail

Important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Modern humans first reached the western Pacific in the Paleolithic, at around 60,000 to 70,000 years ago. Originating from a southern coastal human migration out of Africa, they reached East Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, the Philippines, New Guinea, and then Australia by making the sea crossing of at least 80 kilometres (50 mi) between Sundaland and Sahul. It is not known with any certainty what level of maritime technology was used by these groups – the presumption is that they used large bamboo rafts which may have been equipped with some sort of sail. The reduction in favourable winds for a crossing to Sahul after 80,000 B.P. fits with the dating of the settlement of Australia, with no later migrations in the prehistoric period. The seafaring abilities of pre-Austronesian residents of Island South-east Asia are confirmed by the settlement of Buka by 32,000 B.P. and Manus by 25,000 B.P. Journeys of 180 kilometres (110 mi) and 230 kilometres (140 mi) are involved, respectively.[9]

The descendants of these migrations today are the Negritos, Melanesians, and Indigenous Australians. Their populations in maritime Southeast Asia, coastal New Guinea, and Island Melanesia later intermarried with the incoming Austronesian settlers from Taiwan and the northern Philippines, but also earlier groups associated with Austroasiatic-speakers, resulting in the modern peoples of Island Southeast Asia and Oceania.[10][11]

Map showing the migration of the Austronesian peoples

A later seaborne migration is the Neolithic Austronesian expansion of the Austronesian peoples. Austronesians originated from the island of Taiwan c. 3000–1500 BCE. They are associated with distinctive maritime sailing technologies (notably outrigger boats, catamarans, lashed-lug boats, and the crab claw sail) – it is likely that the progressive development of these technologies were related to the later steps of settlement into Near and Remote Oceania. Starting at around 2200 BCE, Austronesians sailed southwards to settle the Philippines. From, probably, the Bismarck Archipelago they crossed the western Pacific to reach the Marianas Islands by 1500 BCE,[12] as well as Palau and Yap by 1000 BCE. They were the first humans to reach Remote Oceania, and the first to cross vast distances of open water. They also continued spreading southwards and settling the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia, reaching Indonesia and Malaysia by 1500 BCE, and further west to Madagascar and the Comoros in the Indian Ocean by around 500 CE.[13][14][15] More recently, it is suggested that Austronesians expanded already earlier, arriving in the Philippines already in 7000 BCE. Additional earlier migrations into Insular Southeast Asia, associated with Austroasiatic-speakers from Mainland Southeast Asia, are estimated to have taken place already in 15000 BCE.[16]

At around 1300 to 1200 BCE, a branch of the Austronesian migrations known as the Lapita culture reached the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, and New Caledonia. From there, they settled Tonga and Samoa by 900 to 800 BCE. Some also back-migrated northwards in 200 BCE to settle the islands of eastern Micronesia (including the Carolines, the Marshall Islands, and Kiribati), mixing with earlier Austronesian migrations in the region. This remained the furthest extent of the Austronesian expansion into Polynesia until around 700 CE when there was another surge of island exploration. They reached the Cook Islands, Tahiti, and the Marquesas by 700 CE; Hawaiʻi by 900 CE; Rapa Nui by 1000 CE; and finally New Zealand by 1200 CE.[14][17][18] Austronesians may have also reached as far as the Americas, although evidence for this remains inconclusive.[19][20]

European exploration

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Main article: Exploration of the Pacific
Universalis Cosmographia, also known as the Waldseemüller map, dated 1507, was the first map to show the Americas separating two distinct oceans. South America was generally considered the New World and shows the name "America" for the first time, after Amerigo Vespucci

The first contact of European navigators with the western edge of the Pacific Ocean was made by the Portuguese expeditions of António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão, via the Lesser Sunda Islands, to the Maluku Islands, in 1512,[21][22] and with Jorge Álvares's expedition to southern China in 1513,[23] both ordered by Afonso de Albuquerque from Malacca.

The eastern side of the ocean was encountered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached a new ocean.[24] He named it Mar del Sur ("Sea of the South" or "South Sea") because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific.

In 1520, navigator Ferdinand Magellan and his crew were the first to cross the Pacific in recorded history. They were part of a Spanish expedition to the Spice Islands that would eventually result in the first world circumnavigation. Magellan called the ocean Pacífico (or "Pacific" meaning, "peaceful") because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century.[25] Magellan stopped at one uninhabited Pacific island before stopping at Guam in March 1521.[26] Although Magellan himself died in the Philippines in 1521, Spanish navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano led the remains of the expedition back to Spain across the Indian Ocean and round the Cape of Good Hope, completing the first world circumnavigation in 1522.[27] Sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions encountered the Caroline Islands,[28] the Aru Islands,[29] and Papua New Guinea.[30] In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan.[31]

In 1564, five Spanish ships carrying 379 soldiers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi, and colonized the Philippines and Mariana Islands.[32] For the remainder of the 16th century, Spain maintained military and mercantile control, with ships sailing from Mexico and Peru across the Pacific Ocean to the Philippines via Guam, and establishing the Spanish East Indies. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries, linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history. Spanish expeditions also arrived at Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, the Marshalls and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific.[33]

Later, in the quest for Terra Australis ("the [great] Southern Land"), Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, arrived at the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. Dutch explorers, sailing around southern Africa, also engaged in exploration and trade; Willem Janszoon, made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in Cape York Peninsula,[34] and Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and arrived at Tasmania and New Zealand in 1642.[35]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a mare clausum – a sea closed to other naval powers. As the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent the entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western side of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines.[36]

The 18th century marked the beginning of major exploration by the Russians in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, such as the First Kamchatka expedition and the Great Northern Expedition, led by the Danish-born Russian navy officer Vitus Bering. Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest, reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and colonized Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest. In 1768, Pierre-Antoine Véron, a young astronomer accompanying Louis Antoine de Bougainville on his voyage of exploration, established the width of the Pacific with precision for the first time in history.[37] One of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific.[33]

  • Made in 1529, the Diogo Ribeiro map was the first to show the Pacific at about its proper size
    Made in 1529, the Diogo Ribeiro map was the first to show the Pacific at about its proper size
  • Map of the Pacific Ocean during European Exploration, circa 1754.
    Map of the Pacific Ocean during European Exploration, circa 1754.
  • Maris Pacifici by Ortelius (1589). One of the first printed maps to show the Pacific Ocean[38]
    Maris Pacifici by Ortelius (1589). One of the first printed maps to show the Pacific Ocean[38]
  • Map of the Pacific Ocean during European Exploration, circa 1702–1707
    Map of the Pacific Ocean during European Exploration, circa 1702–1707

New Imperialism

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See also: New Imperialism and Pacific Century
The bathyscaphe Trieste before her record dive to the bottom of the Mariana Trench, 23 January 1960
Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars taking over Tahiti on 9 September 1842

Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by European powers, and later Japan and the United States. Significant contributions to oceanographic knowledge were made by the voyages of HMS Beagle in the 1830s, with Charles Darwin aboard;[39] HMS Challenger during the 1870s;[40] the USS Tuscarora (1873–76);[41] and the German Gazelle (1874–76).[42]

In Oceania, France obtained a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853, respectively.[43] After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro negotiated the incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888. By occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations.[44]: 53  By 1900 nearly all Pacific islands were in control of Britain, France, United States, Germany, Japan, and Chile.[43]

Although the United States gained control of Guam and the Philippines from Spain in 1898,[45] Japan controlled most of the western Pacific by 1914 and occupied many other islands during the Pacific War; however, by the end of that war, Japan was defeated and the U.S. Pacific Fleet was the virtual master of the ocean. The Japanese-ruled Northern Mariana Islands came under the control of the United States.[46] Since the end of World War II, many former colonies in the Pacific have become independent states.

Geography

[edit]
Sunset over the Pacific Ocean as seen from the International Space Station. Tops of thunderclouds are also visible.
The island geography of the Pacific Ocean Basin
The three major cultural areas of the Pacific Ocean islands: Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia

The Pacific separates Asia and Australia from the Americas. It may be further subdivided by the equator into northern (North Pacific) and southern (South Pacific) portions. It extends from the Antarctic region in the South to the Arctic in the north.[1] The Pacific Ocean encompasses approximately one-third of the Earth's surface, having an area of 165,200,000 km2 (63,800,000 sq mi) – larger than Earth's entire landmass combined, 150,000,000 km2 (58,000,000 sq mi).[47]

Extending approximately 15,500 km (9,600 mi) from the Bering Sea in the Arctic to the northern extent of the circumpolar Southern Ocean at 60°S (older definitions extend it to Antarctica's Ross Sea), the Pacific reaches its greatest east–west width at about 5°N latitude, where it stretches approximately 19,800 km (12,300 mi) from Indonesia to the coast of Colombia – halfway around the world, and more than five times the diameter of the Moon.[48] Its geographic center is in eastern Kiribati south of Kiritimati, just west from Starbuck Island at 4°58′S 158°45′W / 4.97°S 158.75°W / -4.97; -158.75.[49] The lowest known point on Earth – the Mariana Trench – lies 10,911 m (35,797 ft; 5,966 fathoms) below sea level. Its average depth is 4,280 m (14,040 ft; 2,340 fathoms), putting the total water volume at roughly 710,000,000 km3 (170,000,000 cu mi).[1]

Due to the effects of plate tectonics, the Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking by roughly 2.5 cm (1 in) per year on three sides, roughly averaging 0.52 km2 (0.20 sq mi) a year. By contrast, the Atlantic Ocean is increasing in size.[50][51]

Along the Pacific Ocean's irregular western margins lie many seas, the largest of which are the Celebes Sea, Coral Sea, East China Sea (East Sea), Philippine Sea, Sea of Japan, South China Sea (South Sea), Sulu Sea, Tasman Sea, and Yellow Sea (West Sea of Korea). The Indonesian Seaway (including the Strait of Malacca and Torres Strait) joins the Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the west, and Drake Passage and the Strait of Magellan link the Pacific with the Atlantic Ocean on the east. To the north, the Bering Strait connects the Pacific with the Arctic Ocean.[52]

As the Pacific straddles the 180th meridian, the West Pacific (or western Pacific, near Asia) is in the Eastern Hemisphere, while the East Pacific (or eastern Pacific, near the Americas) is in the Western Hemisphere.[53]

The Southern Pacific Ocean harbors the Southeast Indian Ridge crossing from south of Australia turning into the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge (north of the South Pole) and merges with another ridge (south of South America) to form the East Pacific Rise which also connects with another ridge (south of North America) which overlooks the Juan de Fuca Ridge.

For most of Magellan's voyage from the Strait of Magellan to the Philippines, the explorer indeed found the ocean peaceful; however, the Pacific is not always peaceful. Many tropical storms batter the islands of the Pacific.[54] The lands around the Pacific Rim are full of volcanoes and often affected by earthquakes. Tsunamis, caused by underwater earthquakes, have devastated many islands and in some cases destroyed entire towns.[55]

The Martin Waldseemüller map of 1507 was the first to show the Americas separating two distinct oceans.[56] Later, the Diogo Ribeiro map of 1529 was the first to show the Pacific at about its proper size.[57]

Bordering countries

[edit]
An exclusive economic zone (EEZ) map of the Pacific

(Inhabited dependent territories are denoted by the asterisk (*), with names of the corresponding sovereign states in round brackets. Associated states in the Realm of New Zealand are denoted by the hash sign (#).)

Asia-Pacific

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Americas

[edit]

Uninhabited territories

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Territories with no permanent civilian population.

Landmasses and islands

[edit]
Main article: List of islands in the Pacific Ocean
Tarawa Atoll in Kiribati

The Pacific Ocean has most of the islands in the world. There are about 25,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean.[58][59][60] The islands entirely within the Pacific Ocean can be divided into three main groups known as Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall Islands to the east and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast.[61][62]

Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island after Greenland and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia.[63]

The largest area, Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral Islands in the center, and the Marquesas Islands, Tuamotu, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the east.[64]

Islands in the Pacific Ocean are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. Continental islands lie outside the andesite line and include New Guinea, the islands of New Zealand, and the Philippines. Some of these islands are structurally associated with nearby continents. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands.[65]

The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia.[66][67]

Water characteristics

[edit]
Sunset in Monterey County, California, U.S.

The volume of the Pacific Ocean, representing about 50.1 percent of the world's oceanic water, has been estimated at some 714 million cubic kilometers (171 million cubic miles).[68] Surface water temperatures in the Pacific can vary from −1.4 °C (29.5 °F), the freezing point of seawater, in the poleward areas to about 30 °C (86 °F) near the equator.[69] Salinity also varies latitudinally, reaching a maximum of 37 parts per thousand in the southeastern area. The water near the equator, which can have a salinity as low as 34 parts per thousand, is less salty than that found in the mid-latitudes because of abundant equatorial precipitation throughout the year. The lowest counts of less than 32 parts per thousand are found in the far north as less evaporation of seawater takes place in these frigid areas.[70] The motion of Pacific waters is generally clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (the North Pacific gyre) and counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The North Equatorial Current, driven westward along latitude 15°N by the trade winds, turns north near the Philippines to become the warm Japan or Kuroshio Current.[71]

Turning eastward at about 45°N, the Kuroshio forks and some water moves northward as the Aleutian Current, while the rest turns southward to rejoin the North Equatorial Current.[72] The Aleutian Current branches as it approaches North America and forms the base of a counter-clockwise circulation in the Bering Sea. Its southern arm becomes the chilled slow, south-flowing California Current.[73] The South Equatorial Current, flowing west along the equator, swings southward east of New Guinea, turns east at about 50°S, and joins the main westerly circulation of the South Pacific, which includes the Earth-circling Antarctic Circumpolar Current. As it approaches the Chilean coast, the South Equatorial Current divides; one branch flows around Cape Horn and the other turns north to form the Peru or Humboldt Current.[74]

Climate

[edit]
Impact of El Niño and La Niña on North America
Typhoon Tip at global peak intensity on 12 October 1979

The climate patterns of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres generally mirror each other. The trade winds in the southern and eastern Pacific are remarkably steady while conditions in the North Pacific are far more varied with, for example, cold winter temperatures on the east coast of Russia contrasting with the milder weather off British Columbia during the winter months due to the preferred flow of ocean currents.[75]

In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather conditions. To determine the phase of ENSO, the most recent three-month sea surface temperature average for the area approximately 3,000 km (1,900 mi) to the southeast of Hawaii is computed, and if the region is more than 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) above or below normal for that period, then an El Niño or La Niña is considered in progress.[76]

In September 2025, NOAA reported that global ocean surface temperatures remained at near-record levels, with June–August 2025 ranking as the third warmest in their 176-year record.[77]

In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass.[78] Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest; however, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, while September is the most active month. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active.[79] The Pacific hosts the two most active tropical cyclone basins, which are the northwestern Pacific and the eastern Pacific. Pacific hurricanes form south of Mexico, sometimes striking the western Mexican coast and occasionally the Southwestern United States between June and October, while typhoons forming in the northwestern Pacific moving into southeast and east Asia from May to December. Tropical cyclones also form in the South Pacific basin, where they occasionally impact island nations.[80]

In the arctic, icing from October to May can present a hazard for shipping while persistent fog occurs from June to December.[81] A climatological low in the Gulf of Alaska keeps the southern coast wet and mild during the winter months. The Westerlies and associated jet stream within the Mid-Latitudes can be particularly strong, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, due to the temperature difference between the tropics and Antarctica,[82] which records the coldest temperature readings on the planet. In the Southern hemisphere, because of the stormy and cloudy conditions associated with extratropical cyclones riding the jet stream, it is usual to refer to the Westerlies as the Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking Sixties according to the varying degrees of latitude.[83]

Geology

[edit]
Main articles: Geology of the Pacific Ocean and Pacific plate
A Ring of Fire; the Pacific is ringed by many volcanoes and oceanic trenches. This map does not show the Cascadia subduction zone along part of the west coast of North America, whose trench is completely buried in sediments.
A stratovolcano in Ulawun on the island of New Britain in Papua New Guinea
Mount St. Helens in Skamania County, Washington, U.S. in 2020

The ocean was first mapped by Abraham Ortelius; he called it Maris Pacifici following Ferdinand Magellan's description of it as "a pacific sea" during his circumnavigation from 1519 to 1522. To Magellan, it seemed much more calm (pacific) than the Atlantic.[84]

The andesite line is the most significant regional distinction in the Pacific. A petrologic boundary, it separates the deeper, mafic igneous rock of the Central Pacific Basin from the partially submerged continental areas of felsic igneous rock on its margins.[85] The andesite line follows the western edge of the islands off California and passes south of the Aleutian arc, along the eastern edge of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kuril Islands, Japan, the Mariana Islands, the Solomon Islands, and New Zealand's North Island.[86][87]

The dissimilarity continues northeastward along the western edge of the Andes Cordillera along South America to Mexico, returning then to the islands off California. Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, New Guinea, and New Zealand lie outside the andesite line.

Within the closed loop of the andesite line are most of the deep troughs, submerged volcanic mountains, and oceanic volcanic islands that characterize the Pacific basin. Here basaltic lavas gently flow out of rifts to build huge dome-shaped volcanic mountains whose eroded summits form island arcs, chains, and clusters. Outside the andesite line, volcanism is of the explosive type, and the Pacific Ring of Fire is the world's foremost belt of explosive volcanism.[61] The Ring of Fire is named after the several hundred active volcanoes that sit above the various subduction zones.

The Pacific Ocean is the only ocean which is mostly bounded by subduction zones. Only the central part of the North American coast and the Antarctic and Australian coasts have no nearby subduction zones.

Geological history

[edit]

The Pacific Ocean was born 750 million years ago at the breakup of Rodinia, although it is generally called the Panthalassa until the breakup of Pangea, about 200 million years ago.[88] The oldest Pacific Ocean floor is only around 180 Ma old, with older crust subducted by now.[89]

Seamount chains

[edit]

The Pacific Ocean contains several long seamount chains, formed by hotspot volcanism. These include the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain and the Louisville Ridge.

Economy

[edit]

The exploitation of the Pacific's mineral wealth is hampered by the ocean's great depths. In shallow waters of the continental shelves off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, petroleum and natural gas are extracted, and pearls are harvested along the coasts of Australia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Nicaragua, Panama, and the Philippines, although in sharply declining volume in some cases.[90]

Fishing

[edit]

Fish are an important economic asset in the Pacific. The shallower shoreline waters of the continents and the more temperate islands yield herring, salmon, sardines, snapper, swordfish, and tuna, as well as shellfish.[91] Overfishing has become a serious problem in some areas. Overfishing leads to depleted fish populations and closed fisheries, causing both economic and ecologic consequences.[92] For example, catches in the rich fishing grounds of the Okhotsk Sea off the Russian coast have been reduced by at least half since the 1990s as a result of overfishing.[93]

Environment

[edit]
See also: Great Pacific Garbage Patch and Environmental impact of shipping
Pacific Ocean currents have created three islands of debris.[94]
Marine debris on a Hawaiian coast in 2008

The Northwestern Pacific Ocean is most susceptible to micro plastic pollution due to its proximity to highly populated countries like Japan and China.[95] The quantity of small plastic fragments floating in the north-east Pacific Ocean increased a hundredfold between 1972 and 2012.[96][verification needed] The ever-growing Great Pacific Garbage Patch between California and Japan is three times the size of France.[97] An estimated 80,000 metric tons of plastic inhabit the patch, totaling 1.8 trillion pieces.[98]

Marine pollution is a generic term for the harmful entry into the ocean of chemicals or particles. The main culprits are those using the rivers for disposing of their waste.[99] The rivers then empty into the ocean, often also bringing chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[100]

Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is human-created waste that has ended up floating in a lake, sea, ocean, or waterway. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter.[99]

In addition, the Pacific Ocean has served as the crash site of satellites, including Mars 96, Fobos-Grunt, and Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite.

Nuclear waste

[edit]
In 2020, Japanese Prime Minister Suga declined to drink the bottle of Fukushima's treated radioactive water that he was holding, which would otherwise be discharged to the Pacific.[101]

From 1946 to 1958, Marshall Islands served as the Pacific Proving Grounds, designated by the United States, and played host to a total of 67 nuclear tests conducted across various atolls.[102][103] Several nuclear weapons were lost in the Pacific Ocean,[104] including one-megaton bomb that was lost during the 1965 Philippine Sea A-4 incident.[105]

In 2021, the discharge of radioactive water from the Fukushima nuclear plant into the Pacific Ocean over a course of 30 years was approved by the Japanese Cabinet. The Cabinet concluded the radioactive water would have been diluted to drinkable standard.[106] Apart from dumping, leakage of tritium into the Pacific was estimated to be between 20 and 40 trillion Bqs from 2011 to 2013, according to the Fukushima plant.[107]

Deep sea mining

[edit]

An emerging threat for the Pacific Ocean is the development of deep-sea mining. Deep-sea mining is aimed at extracting manganese nodules that contain minerals such as magnesium, nickel, copper, zinc and cobalt. The largest deposits of these are found in the Pacific Ocean between Mexico and Hawaii in the Clarion Clipperton fracture zone.

Deep-sea mining for manganese nodules appears to have drastic consequences for the ocean. It disrupts deep-sea ecosystems and may cause irreversible damage to fragile marine habitats.[108] Sediment stirring and chemical pollution threaten various marine animals. In addition, the mining process can lead to greenhouse gas emissions and promote further climate change. Preventing deep-sea mining is therefore important to ensure the long-term health of the ocean.[109]

List of major ports

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See also

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References

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Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Pacific Ocean

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Pacific Ocean is Earth's largest and deepest , spanning approximately 155 million square kilometers and accounting for more than 30 percent of the planet's surface area, with an average depth of 4,000 meters. It stretches from the in the north to the near in the south, bordered by and to the west and the to the east, encompassing thousands of islands including , , and the . The ocean's floor features the , reaching depths exceeding 10,900 meters at , the deepest known point on Earth's seabed. Tectonically active, the Pacific hosts the , a 40,000-kilometer belt of volcanoes and zones encircling its basin, driving frequent seismic events and volcanic activity due to of the Pacific Plate beneath surrounding plates. Economically vital, it supports major fisheries yielding billions in annual value, particularly stocks in the western and central regions, and serves as a primary corridor for global shipping routes connecting to the .

Etymology

Naming and Cultural Significance

The modern name "Pacific Ocean" originates from Portuguese explorer , who, during his 1519–1522 of the globe under the Spanish crown, encountered calm conditions after passing through the stormy waters near in November 1520. He designated the body Mar Pacífico, translating to "peaceful sea" in reference to the serene weather during his initial crossing, contrasting sharply with prior tempests. Indigenous peoples inhabiting Pacific islands long predated this nomenclature, employing terms that underscored the ocean's immensity and vital role in their existence, such as the Hawaiian Moananuiākea, evoking a vast, genealogically linked expanse connecting disparate landmasses and communities. For Austronesian-descended groups like , , and , the Pacific Ocean constitutes the core of cultural identity, enabling prehistoric migrations and settlements across its 165 million square kilometers from approximately 3000 BCE onward via sophisticated techniques. Navigators discerned direction from stellar paths, patterns, , cloud formations, and avian migrations, facilitating voyages exceeding 6,000 kilometers without . This maritime prowess underpinned interconnected societies where the ocean served not merely as a barrier but as a relational medium for exchange, sustenance through and , and spiritual cosmology, with oral traditions portraying sea voyages as heroic quests intertwined with ancestral deities and natural forces. Contemporary indigenous perspectives continue to frame the Pacific as an ancestral "motherland," integral to ecological and cultural continuity, wherein human-ocean bonds emphasize reciprocity over exploitation, informing responses to environmental pressures like climate variability.

Historical Human Engagement

Prehistoric Settlements and Migrations

Human entry into the Pacific region occurred as part of early migrations, with initial coastal movements reaching Near Oceania, including and the , approximately 40,000 to 50,000 years ago, supported by archaeological evidence of stone tools and occupation sites. These early settlers navigated short sea crossings using rudimentary watercraft, exploiting coastal resources amid fluctuating sea levels during the Pleistocene. Settlement remained confined to Near Oceania until the period, as longer oceanic voyages required advanced seafaring technology. The Austronesian expansion, originating from around 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, marked the primary prehistoric migration into , evidenced by linguistic dispersal of Austronesian languages and archaeological finds of transported crops like and bananas. This seaborne movement progressed through to by 1500 BCE, introducing the Lapita cultural complex characterized by dentate-stamped pottery, obsidian tools, and domestic animals such as pigs and chickens. Lapita sites, dating from 1600 to 500 BCE, first appeared near the and rapidly spread eastward to , , and by 1000 BCE, demonstrating deliberate colonization via outrigger canoes capable of voyaging thousands of kilometers. Genetic analyses confirm Austronesian admixture with preexisting Melanesian populations, forming the basis for later Polynesian lineages. Micronesia saw independent early settlement in the around 3500 to 3200 , predating Lapita influence, with distinct red-slipped and no evidence of Austronesian crops initially, suggesting arrivals from the via short hops. Subsequent Austronesian waves reached central by 2000 to 1000 BCE, while Melanesia's remote islands like were colonized via Lapita dispersals around 3000 . In , expansion from the Samoa-Tonga homeland occurred after 1000 BCE, with voyages to the Marquesas by 300 BCE and further to around 300 to 800 CE, and by 1200 to 1300 CE, corroborated by of settlement sites and oral traditions aligned with archaeological sequences. These migrations relied on navigational expertise, including star paths and wave patterns, enabling repeated interactions that distributed artifacts like adzes across island groups.

European Discovery and Mapping

became the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean on September 25, 1513, after leading an expedition across the ; he waded into its waters and claimed it for , naming it the South Sea. explorer achieved the first recorded European crossing of the Pacific during his 1519–1521 expedition, departing on September 20, 1519, entering the ocean via the on November 28, 1520, and enduring a 98-day voyage to reach on March 6, 1521, where he named it Mar Pacifico for its unexpectedly calm conditions during the passage. Early European mapping of the Pacific advanced rapidly following Magellan's voyage, with Spanish cosmographer Diogo Ribeiro producing a 1529 world map that depicted the at approximately its true scale for the first time, incorporating data from the and prior explorations. Spanish explorers established the Manila-Acapulco in 1565 under , enabling regular trans-Pacific crossings that facilitated further reconnaissance of western Pacific coasts and islands. English crossed the Pacific from June to October 1579 during his , raiding Spanish settlements along the South American coast and exploring northward to before proceeding west. In the , Dutch explorer conducted voyages in 1642–1643 and 1644, becoming the first European to sight on November 24, 1642, and to encounter on December 13, 1642, while also reaching and , though his charts remained largely secret until later publication. Tasman's expeditions marked a shift toward southern Pacific in search of the hypothetical . British navigator James Cook's three voyages from 1768 to 1779 provided the most systematic European mapping of the Pacific to date: the first (1768–1771) charted , New Zealand's coasts, and Australia's eastern seaboard; the second (1772–1775) explored southern waters, disproving a vast southern continent; and the third (1776–1779) surveyed the , , and other islands, yielding precise charts that corrected earlier inaccuracies and supported scientific observations. Cook's work, aided by advanced chronometers for longitude determination, filled major gaps in Pacific and influenced subsequent .

Colonial Exploitation and Conflicts

The Manila-Acapulco galleon trade, initiated by in 1565, established the first sustained transpacific route, transporting Chinese silks, , and spices from to in exchange for Mexican silver; this commerce persisted until 1815 and generated immense wealth for the Spanish crown through monopolized duties, while exploiting indigenous Filipino labor conscripted via the polo y servicios system for shipbuilding and navigation. The galleons, often crewed by coerced native workers facing high mortality from and storms, underscored early colonial reliance on forced labor to bridge the Pacific's vast distances for resource extraction and global trade integration. Intensive emerged as a dominant exploitative activity from the 1790s onward, with American vessels rounding to target Pacific populations; by the 1840s, the industry peaked with approximately 700 ships harvesting over 30,000 whales annually for used in and , severely depleting stocks and transforming remote islands into provisioning stations. Whalers' demand for freshwater, food, and repairs spurred economic dependencies in ports like , where provisioning supported up to 400 ships yearly by mid-century, but also introduced diseases and social disruptions to indigenous communities. The mid-19th-century guano boom further exemplified resource-driven exploitation, as bird guano deposits on uninhabited atolls became prized fertilizers; the U.S. Guano Islands Act of January 18, 1856, empowered citizens to claim such islands, resulting in over 90 registrations by 1859, including sites like Jarvis and Howland Islands, where mining operations extracted millions of tons using imported Peruvian and Chinese laborers under harsh conditions. This scramble accelerated ecological transformation, with over-extraction rendering deposits unviable by the 1870s and facilitating U.S. territorial assertions amid competition with Britain and . Colonial rivalries intensified conflicts, as European powers and the partitioned between 1842 and 1900, often through ; in the , tripartite tensions between , the U.S., and Britain erupted in the 1889 Apia naval standoff, where six warships faced off amid a hurricane that destroyed four vessels, leading to the partitioning and recognizing U.S. control over . Such incidents reflected broader scrambles for , phosphates, and strategic harbors, with indigenous resistance— including uprisings against labor —frequently suppressed by colonial forces prioritizing economic yields over local .

20th-Century Geopolitical Shifts

Following , acquired mandates over former German Pacific territories, including the Mariana, Caroline, and , designated as the under oversight in 1919; these islands served as strategic naval bases despite prohibitions on fortification. By , violated mandate terms by militarizing the islands, constructing airfields and defenses that facilitated expansion during . The Pacific became the primary theater of World War II after Japan's December 7, 1941, , , which propelled the into the conflict; Japanese forces rapidly conquered territories across and the central Pacific, establishing a defensive perimeter extending from the Aleutians to the Solomons by mid-1942. The Allied response, led by the U.S. Navy's island-hopping campaign starting with in August 1942, systematically recaptured key atolls and islands, culminating in the atomic bombings of and on August 6 and 9, 1945, and Japan's surrender on September 2, 1945; this shifted geopolitical control from Japanese imperialism to U.S. dominance, with American forces seizing over 1,000 islands. Postwar arrangements under United Nations auspices established the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) in 1947, administered by the and encompassing the , Carolines, and northern Marianas (excluding ), as a strategic trusteeship to prepare for while retaining U.S. access. Decolonization accelerated from the 1960s, with Western Samoa achieving independence from on January 1, 1962, as the first Pacific island nation to do so; subsequent transitions included from on January 31, 1968, from Britain on October 10, 1970, from on September 16, 1975, the from Britain on July 7, 1978, from Britain on July 12, 1979, and from Britain and on July 30, 1980, though strategic imperatives delayed full autonomy for U.S.-administered Micronesian entities until the 1980s-1990s via Compacts of Free Association. During the Cold War, the formalized containment strategies in the Pacific, including the Treaty signed on September 1, 1951, by , , and the U.S., committing parties to consult on threats and act against armed attacks in the Pacific area to counter communist expansion. Complementing this, Secretary of State outlined the in 1951, leveraging allied-held archipelagos—the first chain (, , ) and second chain (, , Marianas)—as barriers to Soviet and Chinese naval advances, with U.S. bases like those on and Okinawa enabling power projection and nuclear deterrence, including tests at and Enewetak atolls from 1946 onward. These measures solidified U.S. hegemony, limiting Soviet influence to peripheral fishing disputes and Chinese activities until late-century economic openings.

Physical Extent and Features

Boundaries and Dimensions

The Pacific Ocean is delimited to the east by the western coastlines of North and South America, extending from the coasts of southward to . To the west, it is bounded by the eastern margins of , including the , , and the , as well as and the Indonesian archipelago. In the north, the Pacific connects to the through the , a narrow passage approximately 85 kilometers wide between eastern and . Its southern boundary conventionally follows the 60° S latitude parallel, where it adjoins the encircling , though some definitions extend it to Antarctic coastal waters via passages like the separating it from the Atlantic. The ocean spans a latitudinal extent from the Arctic region near 65° N at the Bering Strait to 60° S, covering more than 120 degrees of latitude, equivalent to about 14,500 kilometers or 9,000 miles north-south. Its maximum east-west width reaches approximately 19,000 kilometers (12,000 miles) near 5° N latitude, from the Colombian coast to the . The total surface area of the Pacific Ocean, excluding the but including other adjacent marginal seas, measures 161.76 million square kilometers (62.5 million square miles), comprising roughly 46 percent of Earth's oceanic surface. Alternative delineations incorporating additional seas, such as the Arafura, , and Bering Seas, yield a total area of 168.723 million square kilometers. The average depth of the Pacific Ocean is 4,280 meters (14,040 feet), reflecting its vast abyssal plains and deep trenches. The maximum depth occurs in the within the in the western Pacific, measured at 11,034 meters (36,201 feet), though precise soundings vary slightly due to technological and tidal factors, with observations confirming depths exceeding 10,900 meters. This makes the Pacific not only the largest but also the deepest ocean basin, with its volume estimated to exceed twice that of the Atlantic Ocean.

Major Islands and Archipelagos

The Pacific Ocean contains approximately 25,000 to 30,000 islands, dispersed across vast expanses and grouped into three primary ethnogeographic regions: , , and . These islands range from large continental landmasses to small coral atolls, with origins primarily volcanic, tectonic, or atoll formation through buildup on subsiding volcanic bases. The diversity reflects the ocean's tectonic activity along the and isolated hotspots. New Guinea stands as the largest island in the Pacific, covering 785,753 square kilometers and divided between (eastern half) and (western half as West Papua). It is the world's second-largest island overall and features rugged mountains, dense rainforests, and diverse ecosystems supporting over 800 indigenous languages. Other prominent large islands include in (227,960 km², home to about 104 million people) and in (174,600 km², characterized by four peninsulas and a population of roughly 19 million).
RankIslandArea (km²)Primary Location(s)
1785,753,
2227,960
3174,600
4145,836
5111,583
6109,965
7104,530
890,758
977,981
1072,493
This table lists the ten largest islands, emphasizing continental and high volcanic types over smaller oceanic ones. , spanning from eastward to , features larger, geologically older islands with high relief and includes the (over 200 islands in ), (992 islands totaling 28,400 km²), (83 islands), and (more than 300 islands). These areas exhibit mountainous terrain and fringing reefs, with populations adapted to tropical climates and seismic activity. Micronesia, located north of the from to , consists of low-lying atolls and raised limestone islands across thousands of small landforms, including the (e.g., , 544 km²), (encompassing the with 607 islands), and (29 atolls and 5 islands). These remote groupings, often less than 1 km² per island, face vulnerability to sea-level rise due to minimal elevation. Polynesia forms a vast triangular expanse from New Zealand to Hawaii and Easter Island, dominated by volcanic high islands and atolls such as the Hawaiian Islands (main chain spanning 2,400 km, with Hawaii Island at 10,432 km²), Society Islands (French Polynesia, including Tahiti at 1,045 km²), Samoa (two main islands totaling 2,831 km²), Tonga (169 islands), and New Zealand's North and South Islands. These islands, settled by Austronesian voyagers, showcase dispersed volcanic chains from mantle plumes.

Coastal Regions and Territories

The coastal regions of the Pacific Ocean encompass the shorelines of dozens of sovereign states and territories across the , , , and , characterized by stark contrasts in geography. Eastern margins along North and South America feature narrow continental shelves averaging less than 50 kilometers wide, steep submarine canyons, and minimal coastal plains due to ongoing and tectonic compression, resulting in rugged terrains prone to earthquakes and tsunamis. In the western Pacific, broader shelves extend up to hundreds of kilometers, supporting extensive marginal seas such as the , , and , with archipelagic coastlines in fostering diverse systems and fisheries. These regions border approximately 36 countries, including 11 in the (such as , the , , , , , and ), 22 in Asia (including , , Japan, the Philippines, , and ), and 3 in (, , and ). The U.S. maintains strategic Pacific territories, including the inhabited Commonwealth of the , , and , which lie along zones and host military installations critical for regional defense. France administers overseas collectivities like , , and , while the United Kingdom oversees the ; these territories span and , with economies reliant on , , and limited . Independent island nations and freely associated states further define Pacific territories, including the , , and , which maintain compacts of free association with the providing defense and economic aid in exchange for strategic access. Other sovereign entities such as , , , , , , and form a patchwork of microstates vulnerable to sea-level rise and climate variability, with exclusive economic zones covering vast ocean areas despite small landmasses. These coastal and insular territories collectively manage extensive exclusive economic zones totaling over 30 million square kilometers, influencing global maritime trade routes, resource extraction, and geopolitical tensions.

Geological Dynamics

Tectonic Plates and Ring of Fire

The Pacific Plate constitutes the primary tectonic foundation underlying the vast majority of the Pacific Ocean basin, encompassing an area of approximately 103 million square kilometers, making it the largest of Earth's tectonic plates. This oceanic plate moves northwestward at a rate of 7 to 11 centimeters per year relative to the surrounding . Its motion drives interactions at multiple plate boundaries, including divergent spreading along the , where it separates from the and Cocos Plates, facilitating seafloor creation through upwelling . The Pacific Plate is bounded by several major plates, including the North American Plate to the east, the Eurasian and Plates to the north, the Philippine Sea Plate to the west, the Indo-Australian Plate to the southwest, and the Antarctic Plate to the south. Predominantly convergent boundaries characterize these margins, where the denser of the Pacific Plate subducts beneath lighter continental or other oceanic plates, generating intense seismic and volcanic activity through of subducted material and frictional stress accumulation. Transform boundaries, such as the , also occur where the plate slides laterally past the North American Plate. These subduction zones collectively form the Pacific , a horseshoe-shaped belt approximately 40,250 kilometers in length that encircles much of the Pacific Ocean basin. The hosts over 450 active volcanoes and accounts for roughly 90 percent of the world's earthquakes, as plate convergence releases accumulated strain in sudden slips along faults. Volcanic arcs, such as the Aleutians, Kamchatka, Japanese, and Andean chains, emerge from rising through the overriding plates, while deep oceanic trenches, like the Mariana and Peru-Chile, mark the interfaces. This tectonic framework underscores the Pacific's geological dynamism, with causal linkages between plate , , and surface manifestations evident in historical events like the , magnitude 9.5, which originated from Pacific Plate slip beneath .

Volcanism and Earthquakes

The Pacific Ocean's volcanism and seismic activity stem from the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath adjacent plates, creating the —a 40,000-kilometer arc of trenches, volcanic chains, and fault zones encircling much of the basin. This tectonic convergence generates of the subducting slab, producing that rises to form volcanic arcs, while accumulated strain along plate interfaces triggers earthquakes ranging from shallow crustal events to deep-focus quakes exceeding 600 kilometers depth. Volcanic activity concentrates in subduction-related arcs, including the Aleutians, Kurils, , , , , and , where approximately 75% of Earth's active volcanoes—out of about 1,350 potentially active globally—are situated, with roughly 452 volcanoes in the alone. Of these, many are submarine, forming seamounts and guyots; the Pacific hosts tens of thousands of such features, with regions like the Mariana Arc containing over 60 submarine volcanoes, at least 20 exhibiting hydrothermal activity. Eruptions often produce andesitic to rhyolitic lavas, leading to explosive events on land (e.g., ongoing activity at Kilauea in , though hotspot-influenced) and effusive pillow basalts underwater, influencing ocean chemistry via gas emissions and mineral deposits. Seismicity dominates with about 90% of global earthquakes occurring in the , including frequent magnitude 7+ events due to thrust faulting at subduction zones. Megathrust quakes, like the off (magnitude 9.5, the largest recorded), release immense energy, displacing seafloors and generating tsunamis that propagate across the ocean, as evidenced by waves reaching and hours later. Other significant events include the 1964 Prince William Sound quake (magnitude 9.2) in and the 2011 Tohoku event (magnitude 9.0) off , both producing destructive tsunamis with run-ups exceeding 30 meters locally. These quakes highlight the causal link between plate motion rates (up to 10 cm/year at some margins) and recurrence intervals, often centuries for great events, underscoring the basin's role in global .

Submarine Topography and Seamounts

The submarine topography of the Pacific Ocean is dominated by subduction-related trenches along its western and eastern margins, a central system, expansive abyssal plains, and prolific chains formed by intraplate . These features reflect the basin's encirclement by convergent plate boundaries and the influence of mantle hotspots, resulting in extreme depth variations from abyssal depths averaging around 4,000–6,000 meters to localized extremes exceeding 10,000 meters. Major trenches include the , which reaches a maximum depth of approximately 10,935 meters at , the deepest known point on Earth's seafloor, formed by the of the Pacific Plate beneath the Mariana Plate. The , second-deepest at about 10,882 meters in Horizon Deep, arises from of the Pacific Plate under the Tonga Plate and extends over 800 kilometers. Along the eastern margin, the Peru-Chile Trench (also known as the Atacama Trench) plunges to 8,065 meters at Richards Deep, marking the of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate over a length exceeding 5,900 kilometers. These trenches parallel continental margins or island arcs, accumulating sediments and hosting intense seismic activity due to plate convergence rates up to 10–15 cm per year. The constitutes the primary , a where the Pacific Plate spreads from the and Cocos Plates at rates of 10–20 cm per year, the fastest among global ridge systems, producing new basaltic crust and associated hydrothermal vents. This rise segments into volcanic ridges and fracture zones, contrasting with slower-spreading Atlantic counterparts by forming smoother, less rugged topography with overlapping spreading centers. Flanking these elevated features are broad abyssal plains, such as the Pacific Antarctic Basin, covered by thin pelagic sediments and interrupted by aseismic ridges like the . Seamounts, defined as submarine volcanoes rising over 1,000 meters from the seafloor, number in the tens of thousands across the Pacific, far exceeding other oceans due to abundant hotspot and ; estimates suggest over 20,000 such features basin-wide, many capped as guyots from wave erosion during former emergence. The Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain exemplifies this, stretching 6,000 kilometers from the active Big Island of northwest to the Emperor Seamounts near the Kuril-Kamchatka , with over 80 peaks in the Emperor segment alone, formed by the Pacific Plate's passage over a fixed at rates tracing back 85 million years. These isolated peaks host unique chemosynthetic ecosystems around vents and influence ocean currents by disrupting flow, while chains like the further illustrate intraplate magmatism decoupled from plate boundaries.

Oceanographic Processes

Currents and Gyres

The Pacific Ocean hosts two major subtropical gyres—the and the —along with an equatorial current system, all primarily driven by , , and the Coriolis effect from . These wind-generated surface currents form anticyclonic rotations: clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere's and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere's . The gyres span vast areas, with the covering roughly 20 million square kilometers and the encompassing about 37 million square kilometers, influencing heat distribution, nutrient , and accumulation. The consists of four principal currents: the westward-flowing (speeds around 1 m/s), the northward (transport of 60-70 Sverdrups, with peak speeds exceeding 2 m/s as a warm western ), the eastward (slower, under 0.05 m/s in central regions), and the southward (a cooler eastern promoting coastal ). Water parcels complete the gyre circuit in approximately 54 months, transporting warm equatorial waters poleward via the while returning cooler waters equatorward via the , thereby moderating North American and Asian climates. This convergence zone in the central gyre contributes to the accumulation of floating plastics in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, spanning an estimated 1.6 million square kilometers. The , similarly structured but rotating counterclockwise, includes the westward , the northward-flowing (a warm western ), the eastward South Pacific Current, and the southward Peru ( (a cold eastern with speeds up to 0.5 m/s, driving intense of nutrient-rich waters). These dynamics support high biological productivity along the Peruvian , where the Peru Current sustains major fisheries, though the gyre's interior features lower velocities due to weaker forcing compared to the North Pacific. Multidecadal variations in gyre strength, such as a noted intensification from 1993 to 2004, arise from changes in linked to atmospheric oscillations. Overlying both gyres, the Pacific equatorial currents comprise the westward North and South Equatorial Currents (separated by about 1,000 km, with depths to 100-150 meters) and the eastward Equatorial Countercurrent, which flows against prevailing easterlies due to reduced near the . The bifurcates upon reaching the western Pacific, feeding the Kuroshio northward and a southern branch into the gyre systems, while seasonal variations modulate flows, with the countercurrent strengthening during boreal summer. These equatorial flows integrate with gyres to form a basin-wide circulation that redistributes and , with total Pacific transport exceeding that of other oceans due to its expanse.
Major Pacific CurrentsDirectionApproximate Speed/TransportRole
Westward~1 m/sFeeds gyres; equatorial heat transport
Northward>2 m/s; 60-70 SvWarm western boundary; poleward heat
Southward<1 m/sCold eastern boundary; upwelling
Westward~0.5-1 m/sSouthern gyre feeder; westward flow
Peru (Humboldt) CurrentSouthwardUp to 0.5 m/sNutrient upwelling; fisheries support
Equatorial CountercurrentEastwardVariable, ~1 m/sBalances easterlies; seasonal peak

Salinity, Temperature, and Stratification

The average salinity of the Pacific Ocean is approximately 35 grams of salt per liter of seawater, comparable to the global oceanic average. Salinity varies regionally due to differences in evaporation, precipitation, and freshwater inputs; it reaches maxima of around 37 parts per thousand in subtropical high-evaporation zones, while minima below 32 parts per thousand occur in the northern and equatorial regions influenced by heavy rainfall and river discharge. These patterns contribute to density gradients that influence vertical mixing and circulation. Sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean exhibit pronounced latitudinal gradients, with equatorial values typically ranging from 26°C to 29°C and decreasing poleward to below 5°C in subpolar zones. Vertically, temperatures decline rapidly from the surface to the deep ocean, stabilizing at approximately 3.5°C below 1,000 meters, where uniformity prevails due to limited vertical exchange. Recent observations indicate anomalies, such as elevated North Pacific temperatures exceeding 0.25°C above prior records in 2025, linked to atmospheric forcing. Stratification in the Pacific is primarily density-driven, with the pycnocline—marking a sharp increase in with depth—overlying the deep homogeneous layer and typically spanning 100 to 1,000 . This boundary is dominated by thermal effects in the , where temperature gradients account for most changes, though contributes in regions like the northern intermediate waters. The pycnocline shoals and intensifies equatorward in the North Pacific, restricting mixing and nutrient , while strengthening trends since the have been observed in about 40% of the global ocean, including Pacific sectors, due to surface warming and freshening. In the , fronts further modulate stratification, influencing barrier layer thickness and heat storage.

Deep-Sea Features and Exploration

The Pacific Ocean encompasses the deepest regions of the global seafloor, characterized by subduction-related trenches, expansive abyssal plains, and active hydrothermal vent systems. The Mariana Trench, located in the western Pacific near the Mariana Islands, reaches a maximum depth of approximately 10,928 meters at Challenger Deep, the deepest known point on Earth. This arc-shaped depression extends over 2,550 kilometers and averages 70 kilometers in width, formed by the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Mariana Plate. Other significant trenches include the Tonga Trench in the southwest Pacific, with Horizon Deep at about 10,823 meters, and the Kermadec Trench, both associated with subduction zones along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Abyssal plains dominate much of the Pacific's deep seafloor, lying at depths of 3,000 to 6,000 meters and consisting of flat or gently sloping sediment-covered expanses punctuated by seamounts and ridges. These plains result from the accumulation of fine sediments over tectonic features, covering vast areas between continental margins and mid-ocean ridges. Hydrothermal vents, another key feature, cluster along mid-ocean ridges and back-arc basins, such as the , where superheated, mineral-rich fluids emerge from the seafloor at temperatures exceeding 300°C. The first such vents were discovered in 1977 near the on the at around 2,500 meters depth, revealing chemosynthetic ecosystems independent of sunlight. Recent surveys have identified additional vent fields, including five new sites in 2024 on the at 2,550 meters, expanding knowledge of these geologically active oases. Exploration of these deep-sea features began with bathymetric soundings in the mid-20th century, but manned descent to was first achieved on January 23, 1960, by the Trieste, piloted by and [Don Walsh](/page/Don Walsh), reaching 10,916 meters. This U.S. Navy-supported mission confirmed life at extreme depths and marked a milestone in human access to the . Subsequent unmanned and manned expeditions advanced mapping and sampling; for instance, Victor Vescovo's 2019 dive in the Limiting Factor set a new depth record of 10,928 meters while collecting biological and geological data. Modern efforts rely on remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) for detailed seafloor imaging and vent fluid analysis, as seen in ongoing NOAA and WHOI programs targeting the and Mariana region. These technologies have revealed dynamic processes like mineral deposition and endemic species, though vast areas remain unmapped due to technical challenges and extreme pressures exceeding 1,000 atmospheres.

Climatic Patterns

Thermohaline Circulation Influences

The (THC) drives deep ocean currents through density gradients caused by temperature and salinity variations, with the Pacific Ocean serving as a primary site for of ancient deep waters originating from formation regions in the North Atlantic and . These deep waters, enriched with nutrients and low in oxygen, enter the Pacific basin via the and gradually ascend over millennia, with the full conveyor cycle estimated at approximately 1,600 years from North Atlantic sinking to Pacific resurfacing. In the North Pacific, is predominantly confined to the western sector due to intense vertical mixing from internal waves and , limiting widespread surface cooling but concentrating nutrient delivery in that region. This process influences Pacific climatic patterns by modulating sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and heat distribution, as the influx of cold deep water counteracts surface warming and contributes to the maintenance of the ocean's thermal stratification. Enhanced fosters biological productivity through nutrient fertilization, which supports blooms that draw down atmospheric CO2, exerting a cooling feedback on regional and global climate via the . In equatorial and subtropical Pacific zones, THC-driven deep water return flows interact with wind patterns to influence the depth of the , thereby affecting rates and variability, including contributions to dynamics in bordering landmasses. Variations in THC strength, potentially amplified by freshwater inputs from melting ice or altered gradients, can alter Pacific intensity, leading to shifts in SST anomalies that propagate atmospheric teleconnections. For instance, weakened THC reduces deep water ventilation, diminishing oxygen supply to Pacific intermediate depths and exacerbating events observed since the mid-20th century, which in turn influence stability and efficiency. The Pacific's fresher surface waters limit local deep , making it reliant on remote THC forcing for abyssal renewal, underscoring its passive yet critical role in global heat and nutrient redistribution.

ENSO Phenomena: El Niño and La Niña

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a recurring climate pattern centered in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, characterized by fluctuations in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and that alternate between the warm phase known as El Niño and the cool phase known as La Niña. These phases arise from coupled ocean-atmosphere interactions, typically occurring every 2 to 7 years and lasting 9 to 12 months, with the Niño 3.4 region (5°N-5°S, 120°-170°W) serving as a key index for monitoring SST anomalies exceeding ±0.5°C for at least five consecutive three-month periods. ENSO profoundly influences Pacific patterns, from suppression during El Niño to enhanced during La Niña, altering rainfall, storm tracks, and marine productivity across the basin. Under normal conditions, equatorial drive warm surface waters westward toward and , enabling cold nutrient-rich along the eastern Pacific coasts of , which sustains high marine productivity. During El Niño, these winds weaken or reverse, allowing the accumulated warm water pool to shift eastward, reducing and elevating SSTs by 2–4°C or more in the central and eastern Pacific; this triggers the Bjerknes feedback, where anomalous warming further diminishes winds and shifts eastward, amplifying the event. La Niña represents the opposite extreme, with strengthened enhancing the zonal SST , deepening the in the west, and intensifying in the east, resulting in SST anomalies cooler by 1–3°C and a westward contraction of the warm pool. These dynamics disrupt the circulation, a east-west atmospheric cell, leading to suppressed over the central Pacific during El Niño and enhanced activity over during La Niña. In the Pacific, El Niño events often cause excessive rainfall and flooding along the normally arid coasts of and due to reduced and storm track shifts, while inducing droughts and wildfires in the western Pacific, such as the severe impacts seen in during the 1997–1998 event, which featured SST anomalies up to 4°C and contributed to widespread across 16% of global reefs. La Niña, conversely, bolsters and fisheries yields off but brings drier conditions to the western Pacific, exacerbating droughts in and , as observed in the prolonged 2020–2023 "triple-dip" sequence that cooled the Niño 3.4 index by over 1.5°C and influenced multiyear rainfall deficits. Globally teleconnected, these phases affect economies through altered hurricane frequencies—fewer in the eastern Pacific during El Niño—and ecosystem shifts, yet Pacific-centric monitoring via buoys, satellites, and models from agencies like NOAA has improved prediction accuracy to 6–12 months lead time. Strong historical El Niño episodes include 1982–1983 (global economic losses estimated at $8–13 billion) and 2015–2016 (enhanced eastern Pacific warmth linked to U.S. wildfires), while La Niña events like 1955–1956 and 1973–1974 demonstrated cooler phases with intensified western Pacific cyclones. Recent observations as of October 2025 indicate ongoing La Niña conditions with a 70–80% probability of persistence through early 2026, underscoring ENSO's irregular but predictable variability driven by subsurface ocean heat recharge-discharge cycles.

Storm Systems and Variability

The Pacific Ocean hosts the majority of global activity, with distinct basins exhibiting varying frequencies and intensities. In the eastern North Pacific, an average of 15 named storms form annually from 1991 to 2020, of which 8 develop into hurricanes and 4 reach major hurricane strength (Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson scale). The western North Pacific, the most active basin, produces approximately 26 named storms per year on average, including about 16 typhoons (equivalent to hurricanes). The South Pacific sees around 8 s each season ( to ), primarily affecting regions of the . These systems derive from warm sea surface temperatures exceeding 26.5°C, low vertical , and high mid-level , fueling intensification over open ocean waters. Storm variability manifests seasonally and interannually, driven by ocean-atmosphere interactions. Northern Hemisphere activity peaks from June to November, while Southern Hemisphere cyclones concentrate from November to April, aligning with maximum solar heating and influences. Interannual fluctuations are strongly modulated by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): during El Niño phases, enhanced shifts eastward, increasing eastern Pacific hurricane frequency and intensity while suppressing western North Pacific genesis through increased vertical and cooler waters. Conversely, La Niña conditions favor more frequent and intense typhoons in the western North Pacific due to a strengthened subtropical and anomalous warming, with reduced activity in the eastern Pacific. This ENSO-driven asymmetry accounts for much of the basin-scale variability, with no robust evidence of long-term trends in overall frequency attributable to anthropogenic . Extratropical storms, including bomb cyclones and atmospheric rivers, contribute to Pacific variability, particularly in the North Pacific where the Aleutian Low intensifies winter . These systems, forming poleward of 30°N, exhibit explosive deepening rates exceeding 24 hPa in 24 hours and generate significant wave heights, with ENSO influencing their tracks and precipitation yields. Tropical cyclones often undergo extratropical transition, retaining hybrid intensity and impacting mid-latitude patterns, though their post-transition destructiveness varies by pathway and ambient steering flows. Overall, Pacific storm systems display inherent decadal oscillations tied to natural modes like the , rather than unidirectional shifts.

Biological Systems

Biodiversity Hotspots

The Pacific Ocean encompasses multiple marine hotspots, defined by exceptional richness, , and ecological complexity, often resulting from geographic isolation, nutrient , and diverse habitats such as reefs and seamounts. These regions support disproportionate shares of global marine taxa, including over 600 species and thousands of reef-associated fishes in the western Pacific alone, with rates exceeding 20% in isolated archipelagos due to limited and evolutionary divergence. Such hotspots contribute significantly to oceanic productivity, yet face pressures from and warming waters that disrupt symbiotic relationships like -algal mutualisms. The Coral Triangle, spanning the seas of , the , , and adjacent areas in the western Pacific, represents the planet's richest marine biodiversity concentration, harboring 76% of known species (605 out of 798 globally) and 37% of species (2,228 out of approximately 6,000). This peak diversity arises from historical geological stability, overlapping ocean currents delivering larvae from both Pacific and Indian basins, and extensive reef habitats covering over 100,000 square kilometers. Over 2,000 reef fish species thrive here, alongside diverse and apex predators, underscoring the region's role as a larval source for broader populations. Isolated island chains like the Hawaiian archipelago exemplify endemism-driven hotspots, where 25% of the 625 nearshore fish are unique to the , a consequence of the islands' remoteness—over 2,000 miles from continental landmasses—fostering in and deep-water habitats. In ' deep (100–300 feet), nearly 50% of fish , such as the endemic bandit angelfish, occur nowhere else, supported by mesophotic ecosystems with high structural complexity from black corals and sponges. Similarly, the in , covering 408,250 square kilometers, sustains around 800 faunal , including 200 corals, 500 fishes, 18 marine mammals, and 44 birds, with pristine atolls and lagoons preserving amid central Pacific isolation. Seamounts scattered across the Pacific, such as those in the Emperor chain and South Pacific, function as pelagic and benthic hotspots, elevating through topographic enhancement of currents that concentrate and retain larvae within 30–40 kilometers of summits. These underwater volcanoes host dense assemblages of corals, sponges, crustaceans, and fishes, with recent surveys identifying up to 20 potentially new per in the southeast Pacific, where habitat-forming organisms create refugia in otherwise oligotrophic waters. Empirical data from midwater trawls and ROV observations confirm elevated , often 2–3 times surrounding abyssal plains, driven by causal factors like vortex-induced retention rather than mere productivity gradients.

Pelagic and Benthic Ecosystems

The pelagic ecosystem of the Pacific Ocean, spanning the open waters away from shorelines and seafloors, is dominated by planktonic primary producers such as , which form the base of food webs supporting nektonic species like and marine mammals. across the Pacific and adjacent seas averages 26.9 Gt C per year, derived from Coastal Zone Color Scanner observations spanning 1978 to 1986, with highest rates in zones along eastern margins and lowest in the nutrient-limited central gyres due to strong thermal stratification. In tropical regions, particularly the warm pool, large predatory tunas constitute a major biomass component at upper trophic levels, influenced by dynamic spatial patterns tied to environmental variability like ENSO events. Seamounts within the open Pacific act as biodiversity hotspots, exhibiting elevated for pelagic organisms compared to surrounding non-seamount areas, as evidenced by targeted surveys showing enhanced aggregation of micronekton and . Benthic ecosystems in the Pacific encompass habitats from shallow shelves to abyssal plains and subduction-related trenches, where communities rely on organic detritus sinking from surface waters or, in select deep-sea locales, chemosynthetic processes independent of sunlight. Along mid-ocean ridges like the , hydrothermal vents discharge geothermally heated, mineral-rich fluids, sustaining dense assemblages of specialized fauna including vestimentiferan tube worms, bathymodioline mussels, and chemosynthetic that fix carbon via sulfide oxidation; over 300 such vent-associated have been documented since initial discoveries in 1977, with many endemic to Pacific sites. Recent expeditions in 2024 identified five new vent fields in the eastern tropical Pacific at depths of 2,550 meters, expanding known distributions and highlighting ongoing geological activity fostering isolated ecosystems. In contrast, vast abyssal benthic zones, covering much of the Pacific seafloor, feature low-biomass infaunal communities adapted to sparse food inputs, including polychaete worms and that process refractory over extended timescales. These systems demonstrate resilience to extreme pressures and temperatures, with gradients peaking near productive margins and vents while remaining sparse in oligotrophic central basins.

Commercial Species and Population Dynamics

The Pacific Ocean hosts several commercially dominant fish species, with tunas comprising the largest group by volume in the tropical and subtropical western and central regions. (Katsuwonus pelamis), (Thunnus albacares), (Thunnus obesus), and albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga) account for the majority of landings, driven by purse seine, longline, and pole-and-line fisheries targeting highly migratory stocks. In the northern Pacific, (Gadus chalcogrammus) dominates catches, supplemented by Pacific salmon species such as sockeye (Oncorhynchus nerka), pink (O. gorbuscha), chum (O. keta), and Chinook (O. tshawytscha), as well as (Clupea pallasii) and (Gadus macrocephalus). These species exhibit characterized by high natural variability in , influenced by oceanographic factors like temperature anomalies and , alongside fishing mortality. Tuna stocks in the western and central Pacific demonstrate differing trajectories under intense exploitation. populations remain above biomass levels producing (MSY), with recent assessments indicating sustainable exploitation rates despite annual catches exceeding 2 million metric tons. In contrast, spawning potential has declined below MSY reference points, with declared in 2021 assessments due to longline bycatch and purse sets on fish aggregating devices (FADs), leading to projected further depletion without reduced effort. stocks are similarly depleted, with 2023 modeling showing spawning potential ratios under 0.3 across scenarios, attributable to combined purse and longline pressures exceeding recruitment compensation. exhibits regional variation, with South Pacific stocks stable but northern stocks showing slower recovery from historical lows. Northern Pacific groundfish and salmon populations reflect managed stability amid environmental pressures. Alaska pollock sustains annual U.S. landings over 1 million metric tons, with stock assessments confirming biomass above MSY thresholds and no since the 1980s, enabled by quotas and observer programs. Pacific exhibit boom-bust cycles tied to multi-year ocean productivity phases, but Chinook populations in regions like the Columbia River have fallen to less than 3% of pre-European levels, driven by hydroelectric , degradation, and marine survival declines rather than solely commercial harvest. Salish Sea Chinook runs declined 60% from 1984 to 2018, prompting catch restrictions, while aggregate salmon escapement goals are met in Alaska fisheries through . Overall, while U.S. Pacific stocks show 94% free from in 2023, tropical tunas face ongoing depletion risks from illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing by non-domestic fleets.

Economic Utilization

Fisheries and Aquaculture

The Pacific Ocean supports extensive capture fisheries, contributing substantially to global marine production, with tropical tuna fisheries in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO) alone accounting for 54 percent of worldwide tuna catches by volume in 2022, estimated at $5.95 billion in value. Primary target species include (Katsuwonus pelamis), (Thunnus albacares), and (Thunnus obesus), harvested mainly through industrial purse-seine vessels and longline fleets operating across vast exclusive economic zones (EEZs). In the North Pacific, (Gadus chalcogrammus) forms a key demersal fishery, with sustainable quotas maintaining annual harvests around 1–3 million metric tons, while squid and small pelagic species add to regional diversity. Management occurs via regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) such as the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) and Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), which implement catch limits, vessel monitoring, and stock assessments to address pressures from high-seas operations. Stock status varies, with generally abundant but bigeye and experiencing in the WCPO, where 12 species are classified as overfished and 10 under ongoing as of recent assessments. (Thunnus orientalis), once near collapse due to excessive harvesting, has shown recovery through international quotas, enabling an 80 percent increase in allowable U.S. commercial catches for 2025–2026 to support rebuilding while preventing renewed depletion. Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing exacerbates these risks, particularly from unregulated distant-water fleets, distorting catch data, eroding EEZ revenues for island nations, and accelerating stock declines by evading RFMO controls. Aquaculture in Pacific waters lags behind capture fisheries in scale but grows in coastal zones, emphasizing fed species like (Salmo salar) farmed in Chilean fjords and oysters (Crassostrea gigas) along eastern and western rims. Chile's salmon production reached approximately 634,000 metric tons in 2022, driving export value amid disease challenges and regulatory expansions, while Asian Pacific operations focus on (Eucheuma spp.) and , contributing to regional totals exceeding 10 million metric tons annually when including East Asian contributions. Global trends show surpassing wild capture overall, yet Pacific marine systems prioritize enhancement of capture stocks over large-scale ocean ranching due to environmental constraints like variability and risks. Sustainability efforts include measures and to mitigate escapes and nutrient loading, though expansion faces scrutiny for potential alterations in enclosed bays.

Maritime Trade and Ports

The Pacific Ocean hosts the trans-Pacific , connecting East Asian ports to the and handling nearly 30 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) of containerized cargo in , the second-largest volume among major global routes after intra- flows. This corridor primarily carries exports of , machinery, apparel, and consumer goods from , , , and to the and , with westbound shipments dominated by bulk commodities like soybeans, scrap metal, and lumber. The route's scale reflects the ocean's role in over half of global container traffic originating from , supported by mega-container ships capable of 20,000+ TEU capacities that traverse approximately 10,000 nautical miles in 12-15 days under optimal conditions. Secondary Pacific routes include north-south links from to and via the , which processed 3.5 million TEUs in Pacific-related transits in 2023 before drought-induced restrictions reduced capacity by up to 36% in subsequent years. Intra-Pacific , involving island nations and rim states, focuses on fisheries products, minerals, and regional manufactures but constitutes less than 10% of the ocean's total volume, constrained by geographic isolation and smaller vessel sizes. Overall, Pacific maritime volumes grew 2.2% globally in 2024 amid recoveries, though projections indicate stagnation at 0.5% growth in 2025 due to geopolitical tensions, port congestions, and shifting demand patterns. Key Pacific rim ports drive this activity, with , , leading as the world's busiest container facility at approximately 49 million TEUs in 2023, bolstered by its deep-water berths and integration with inland logistics networks. , , follows with robust capabilities, handling over 20 million TEUs annually and serving as a regional hub for Korean exports. On the North American side, the combined Ports of and Long Beach managed 16.1 million TEUs in 2023, representing 40% of U.S. container imports primarily from , despite vulnerabilities to labor disputes and bottlenecks that caused delays averaging 2-3 days per vessel in peak periods. Other significant facilities include Ningbo-Zhoushan, (39.3 million TEUs through December 2024), and , , which support diversified cargoes like automobiles and chemicals. These ports feature automated terminals and expansions for larger vessels, yet face challenges from overcapacity in and underinvestment in U.S. , limiting efficiency gains.

Mineral and Energy Resources

The Pacific Ocean hosts significant deep-sea mineral deposits, primarily polymetallic nodules, cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, and seafloor massive sulfides, concentrated in abyssal plains, , and fields. Polymetallic nodules, potato-sized concretions rich in , , , and , cover vast expanses of the ocean floor at depths of 3,500–6,000 meters, with the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) between and containing an estimated 21.1 billion dry metric tons. In the CCZ, nodule abundance averages about 15 kilograms per square meter, formed slowly over millions of years through precipitation from onto sediments. Cobalt-rich crusts, adhering to seamount flanks at 400–4,000 meters depth, exhibit higher cobalt concentrations up to 2 percent, alongside and platinum-group elements, making them prospective for battery and alloy metals. Seafloor massive sulfides, precipitated near mid-ocean ridges and volcanic arcs like the , yield , , lead, , and silver from hydrothermal fluids, though deposits remain smaller-scale and geologically active compared to nodules. Commercial extraction of these minerals has not commenced as of 2025, with activities limited to under International Seabed Authority contracts; for instance, multiple entities hold rights in the CCZ for nodule prospecting, but technological and regulatory hurdles persist. The reports over 1 million square kilometers under exploration in the Pacific for nodules alone, driven by terrestrial supply constraints for critical metals. Energy resources in the Pacific derive mainly from offshore oil and on continental shelves, particularly off , where 23 platforms operate as of recent assessments, with 22 actively producing hydrocarbons. The U.S. oversees leases in the Pacific , yielding cumulative production of oil and gas since the 1980s, though output has declined from peak levels in the 1980s–1990s due to mature fields. Undiscovered technically recoverable resources in the Pacific region are estimated modestly compared to Atlantic or Gulf basins, with no large-scale deep-ocean plays identified; potential gas hydrates exist but remain uneconomic and unproven at scale. Exploration faces restrictions in many areas to mitigate seismic risks and environmental impacts, limiting new development.

Environmental Dynamics and Human Impacts

Natural Pollution Cycles vs. Anthropogenic Inputs

The Pacific Ocean experiences natural pollution cycles primarily through geological processes associated with its location along the tectonically active , including volcanic eruptions and activity. Submarine and subaerial volcanoes, such as in , emit substantial quantities of —approximately 2,000 tons per day during active phases—along with ash laden with heavy metals like mercury and , which deposit into ocean waters and influence local pH and oxygenation levels. Episodic events, such as the 2022 Hunga Tonga eruption, inject sulfate aerosols and water vapor into the atmosphere, indirectly enhancing ocean aerosol loading and potentially altering surface chemistry over wide areas. , prevalent along mid-ocean ridges like the , discharge mineral-rich fluids containing iron, manganese, copper, zinc, and sulfides at temperatures exceeding 300°C, contributing essential micronutrients that drive chemosynthetic ecosystems but also elevate local concentrations of potentially toxic elements in vent plumes. These inputs form part of baseline geochemical cycles, with vents recycling seafloor minerals and supporting adapted to high-metal environments. Natural hydrocarbon inputs occur via seafloor and gas seeps, particularly off the coast at sites like Coal Oil Point, where an estimated 20–25 tons of seep daily into the Pacific, forming slicks that biodegrade through microbial action. Globally, such seeps contribute 200,000–2,000,000 tons of annually to marine environments, exceeding historical inputs from anthropogenic spills in aggregate volume, with Pacific margin seeps providing a persistent flux that coastal ecosystems have evolved to process. Anthropogenic inputs overlay these cycles with persistent, non-natural pollutants, notably plastics accumulating in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP), a gyre-centered debris field spanning 1.6 million square kilometers and containing an estimated 79,000 metric tons of , of which 75–86% derives from fishing gear such as nets and ropes. from these sources, totaling trillions of pieces, disrupt pelagic food webs and carbon export by up to 13 million metric tons annually in the GPGP region, introducing bioaccumulative toxins absent from natural cycles. Heavy metals like lead and iron see amplified fluxes from human activities, including atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic aerosols from Asian industry reaching the North Pacific, enhancing algal productivity but risking beyond natural variability. Radioactive contaminants from the 2011 Fukushima incident released cesium-134 and cesium-137 isotopes into the , with initial ocean discharges peaking at petabecquerels but diluting to negligible levels by 2015, as evidenced by trace detections in West Coast posing no measurable health risk. Ongoing treated releases, approved by the IAEA in 2023, maintain concentrations far below natural , underscoring rapid oceanic dilution compared to localized natural volcanic inputs. In comparison, natural cycles provide episodic, biodegradable, or ecosystem-integrated inputs—such as hydrocarbons from seeps that microbes efficiently degrade—while anthropogenic additions introduce durable materials like plastics that persist for centuries and novel vectors for transfer, though their total mass remains dwarfed by geological fluxes in elements like or iron. Quantitatively, natural seeps historically outpace spill-derived hydrocarbons, but plastics represent a uniquely perturbation, with annual global inputs of 19–23 million metric tons projected to escalate without intervention, altering Pacific in ways decoupled from pre-industrial baselines. This distinction highlights causal differences: natural processes sustain dynamic equilibria, whereas inputs often exceed assimilative capacities, prompting targeted mitigation over broad overhauls.

Biodiversity Loss and Habitat Alteration

Overexploitation through has contributed to declines in certain Pacific populations, though management efforts have stabilized many stocks. Tuna species, which dominate Pacific fisheries, saw 87% of assessed stocks rated as sustainable in 2025, with 99% of landings from non-overfished sources, reflecting improved quotas and monitoring by regional commissions. However, in the extension and some Pacific stocks remain overfished due to historical high catches exceeding maximum sustainable yields. These dynamics illustrate how targeted harvesting alters predator-prey balances, reducing in pelagic zones where tuna prey on smaller and . Coral reef ecosystems, concentrated in Pacific island chains, face habitat alteration from thermal stress leading to bleaching. From January 2023 to September 2025, bleaching-level heat stress affected reefs globally, including Pacific regions, with mass events causing 2.4% coral mortality in some areas during prior episodes like 1998 and up to 3.7% from 2014-2017. Recovery can take six years, but repeated events erode reef structure, diminishing habitats for fish and invertebrates that rely on complex coral frameworks for shelter and reproduction. Such losses cascade to reduce species diversity, as reefs support over 25% of marine life despite covering less than 1% of ocean floor. Plastic pollution, concentrated in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, entangles and is ingested by marine species, disrupting and . The patch, spanning millions of square kilometers in the , affects 17% of impacted species listed as threatened by the IUCN, including seabirds, , and mammals that mistake debris for food. from degrading larger items exacerbate ingestion risks, with up to 1 million seabirds and 100,000 mammals dying annually from related causes across oceans, altering food webs by reducing populations of key consumers. Ocean acidification, driven by CO2 absorption, impairs calcification in Pacific species like corals, pteropods, and , reducing shell formation and survival rates. In coastal Pacific waters, acidification erodes Dungeness crab shells and threatens pteropod populations, a base food source for and other . Heavily calcified organisms experience growth declines of up to 0.75% per 0.1 pH unit drop, potentially shifting ecosystems toward jellyfish-dominated states less supportive of diverse fisheries. Prospective deep-sea mining in Pacific Clarion-Clipperton Zone nodules risks permanent habitat destruction, as nodule fields host unique, slow-growing communities with high endemism. Extraction could fragment seafloor ecosystems, releasing sediments that smother benthic organisms and disrupt carbon sequestration, with models predicting species losses and altered microbial functions persisting for decades. At least 30 shark and ray species, many endangered, overlap mining areas, amplifying extinction risks in understudied depths.

Resource Extraction Debates: Benefits and Regulations

The primary focus of resource extraction debates in the Pacific Ocean centers on deep-sea mining for polymetallic nodules, which are potato-sized deposits rich in , , , , and rare earth elements, concentrated in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ), an spanning about 4.5 million square kilometers southeast of in . These nodules form over millions of years through from and contain metals essential for batteries, wind turbines, and solar panels, with estimates suggesting the CCZ holds reserves equivalent to decades of global demand for cobalt and nickel. Extraction methods involve collectors, riser systems to lift nodules to surface vessels, and separation processes, potentially yielding lower environmental footprints per ton than terrestrial mining due to minimal waste rock and acid leaching requirements, though scalability remains unproven. Proponents argue that Pacific deep-sea mining offers strategic benefits by diversifying supply chains for critical minerals, currently dominated by terrestrial sources in geopolitically unstable regions like the Democratic Republic of Congo for and Indonesia for , thereby reducing vulnerability to price volatility and export restrictions—such as China's 2023 graphite curbs. For mineral-poor Pacific island nations sponsoring exploration contracts through the (), revenues from royalties and profit-sharing could fund climate adaptation, with Nauru's 2021 sponsorship of a Canadian firm triggering the "two-year rule" under UNCLOS to compel ISA exploitation regulations by mid-2023, though delayed into 2025 amid disputes. Economic models project nodule could generate $10-20 billion annually in value by 2035, supporting the without exacerbating land-based or associated with conventional . Critics, including environmental NGOs and over 30 nations advocating a moratorium as of , contend that extraction risks irreversible harm to fragile abyssal ecosystems, where — including undiscovered of microbes, sponges, and fish—recovers over centuries if at all, based on limited disturbance experiments showing plumes spreading kilometers and smothering filter-feeders. These concerns are amplified by knowledge gaps, with only 0.001% of the deep ocean floor mapped in detail, leading to calls for precautionary pauses until baseline data improves, though some analyses question the uniqueness of CCZ , noting overlaps with coastal and potential for localized impacts rather than basin-wide collapse. Regulations are anchored in the 1982 United Nations Convention on the (UNCLOS), which designates the seabed beyond national jurisdiction as the "common heritage of mankind," administered by the ISA, a Jamaica-based body with 169 member states that has issued 17 nodule exploration contracts covering 1.3 million square kilometers in the CCZ as of 2025. The ISA's draft mining code mandates environmental impact assessments, real-time monitoring, and 30% set-asides as Areas of Particular Environmental Interest (APEIs) to preserve hotspots, but lacks teeth without verified recovery metrics or penalties for non-compliance. Pacific states like the pursue national EEZ mining under domestic laws for revenue, while the U.S., not an ISA member, explores unilateral permits to secure minerals, bypassing multilateral delays amid fears of Chinese dominance in ISA contracts. Ongoing ISA sessions in 2025 highlight divides, with developing nations prioritizing benefits and developed ones emphasizing risks, underscoring the tension between resource and preservation.

Geopolitical Dimensions

Territorial Claims and Exclusive Economic Zones

The Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of and island states collectively encompass vast maritime areas, with the 23 Pacific Island countries alone claiming over 30 million square kilometers, representing a significant portion of the ocean's 165.25 million square kilometers total surface area. Under the Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), ratified by most Pacific states except notable holdouts like the , EEZs extend up to 200 nautical miles from coastal baselines, granting sovereign rights over resources such as fisheries, hydrocarbons, and minerals, while territorial seas are limited to 12 nautical miles. Islands capable of sustaining human habitation or economic life generate full EEZs, whereas low-tide elevations do not, a principle central to many disputes; rocks generating only territorial seas further limit expansive claims. Territorial claims in the Pacific frequently intersect with EEZ delineations, as control over islands or features determines resource jurisdiction amid rich fisheries yielding annual catches exceeding 10 million metric tons and potential seabed oil and gas reserves estimated in billions of barrels. The stands as the most contested arena, where China's "" claim—encompassing roughly 90% of the sea—overlaps EEZs asserted by , the , , , and , based on historical usage rather than UNCLOS baselines. China occupies all (disputed by Vietnam and Taiwan) and has built militarized outposts on seven Spratly features (contested by multiple claimants, with Vietnam holding over 20 and the Philippines several), rejecting the 2016 ruling that invalidated its line as exceeding UNCLOS entitlements and affirming Philippine rights around and . Incidents, including China's 1999 grounding of a vessel at and ongoing militia incursions, underscore enforcement tensions, with claimants deriving substantial economic benefits like Vietnam's $2.2 billion annual fisheries from the area. In the , the uninhabited (Diaoyu to ) are administered by since its 1895 incorporation under the unoccupied territory doctrine, generating a disputed EEZ overlapping 's claims and Taiwan's assertions, with potential gas fields like Chunxiao estimated at 10-25 trillion cubic feet. contests Japanese sovereignty, citing historical maps from the , though maintains no prior dispute existed until 1970s seabed resource surveys; Chinese government vessels have intruded Japanese territorial 111 times in 2017 alone, escalating after 's 2012 . The U.S. recognizes Japanese administration under the 1972 Okinawa reversion and treaty obligations, without endorsing sovereignty. The Kuril Islands (Northern Territories to Japan) dispute involves Russia's post-World War II occupation of Etorofu, Kunashiri, , and Habomai—ceded by in 1951 but claimed by as inherent territory predating Soviet seizure in 1945—blocking a and complicating EEZ boundaries rich in fish stocks. Russia administers the chain under Agreement interpretations, rejecting Japan's proximity-based claims and conducting military exercises, while Japan insists on resolution via bilateral talks without prejudice to . Other Pacific claims, such as U.S. holdings in and or French Polynesia's EEZ spanning 5.5 million square kilometers, face fewer active contests, though bilateral delimitations like Australia's with in 1978 demonstrate UNCLOS-guided resolutions via equidistance principles adjusted for equity. The Pacific Ocean has been central to naval strategies since , when the adopted a dual-pronged offensive approach involving central Pacific island-hopping campaigns, such as those targeting and Saipan, and southwest Pacific advances led by General to isolate Japanese forces and secure supply lines across vast distances. This strategy emphasized carrier-based air power, amphibious assaults, and interdiction of Japanese shipping, which sank over 55% of Japan's merchant fleet by 1944, crippling its logistics and enabling Allied advances toward the home islands. Logistical challenges, including the need for forward bases and long-range aviation, shaped tactics like the "leapfrogging" of fortified atolls to bypass strongpoints, prioritizing mobility over total conquest. In the contemporary era, U.S. in the Pacific focuses on integrated deterrence through forward presence, , and denial of sea control to adversaries, particularly in response to China's anti-access/area-denial (A2/AD) capabilities centered on hypersonic missiles and island-based defenses. The U.S. maintains approximately 60% of its fleet in the , conducting exercises like Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC), which in 2024 involved 29 nations and over 40 ships to enhance multinational maritime operations and deter aggression. Recent initiatives, such as Pacific Vanguard 2025, integrated U.S., Australian, and Japanese forces in the to test joint logistics and air-sea coordination, underscoring a shift toward distributed lethality using unmanned systems and allied bases for . China's (PLAN) pursues a Mahanian to secure (SLOCs) and project power beyond the , deploying dual groups into the western Pacific in August 2025 to demonstrate contested access capabilities against U.S. forces. This includes aggressive expansion in the , where artificial island bases support missile systems aimed at sinking U.S. carriers through saturation attacks, reflecting a doctrinal emphasis on offshore defense evolving into far-seas operations. The PLAN's fleet, exceeding 370 ships as of 2024, prioritizes submarines and surface combatants to challenge the U.S.-led island chain containment, with exercises simulating blockades of key chokepoints like the . Allied responses include the pact, announced in 2021, which commits to acquiring up to eight nuclear-powered submarines by the 2040s to bolster undersea deterrence and patrol contested SLOCs, enhancing U.S. and UK technology sharing for stability. Freedom of Navigation Operations (FONOPs) by U.S. destroyers, such as USS Preble's transit near the on December 6, 2024, assert international maritime rights under the UN Convention on the , challenging China's "" claims deemed excessive by the U.S. and upheld in the 2016 ruling. These operations, conducted routinely since 2015, involve within 12 nautical miles of features to prevent territorialization, with over 20 annual FONOPs in the region by 2024. Japan's Self-Defense Forces and Australian navy participate in similar patrols, integrating with U.S. efforts to maintain open sea lanes vital for 60% of global trade. Emerging technologies shape strategies, with the U.S. Marine Corps' emphasizing expeditionary advanced base operations (EABO) on Pacific atolls for and surveillance, tested in exercises like Freedom Edge 2025 with and the . China's countermeasures include hypersonic glide vehicles and carrier-killer missiles, prompting U.S. investments in resilient networks and allied shipyards for maintenance, as outlined in the Navy's 2025 shipbuilding plan targeting 390 ships by 2054. These dynamics reflect a where naval power hinges on undersea dominance, , and basing access, with the Pacific's expanse favoring strategies of attrition over decisive fleet battles.

International Rivalries and Alliances

The primary international rivalry in the Pacific Ocean centers on competition between the United States and China for strategic dominance, particularly over maritime routes and influence in the western Pacific. China's expansive territorial claims, including the "nine-dash line" encompassing approximately 90% of the South China Sea, overlap with exclusive economic zones (EEZs) asserted by the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Brunei, leading to frequent standoffs such as the 2024 incidents involving Chinese vessels blocking Philippine resupply missions at Second Thomas Shoal. These disputes have escalated since China's 2013 declaration of an air defense identification zone in the East China Sea and its militarization of artificial islands in the Spratly and Paracel archipelagos, where it occupies features contested by Vietnam and Taiwan. The United States counters through Freedom of Navigation Operations (FONOPs), conducting over 45 such missions in the Indo-Pacific since 2017 to challenge excessive maritime claims and uphold international law principles like those in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, despite not having ratified it; for instance, the USS Benfold transited near the Paracels in July 2023, prompting Chinese protests. Tensions extend to the , a critical chokepoint for Pacific shipping, where China's military drills simulating blockades—such as those in October 2024—signal intent to coerce into unification, viewing it as a breakaway province. The U.S. maintains strategic ambiguity under the of 1979, providing defensive arms while avoiding explicit defense commitments, amid fears of escalation into broader Pacific conflict; recent assessments highlight as the most likely U.S.- flashpoint, with China's expanding to over 370 ships by 2024, surpassing U.S. surface fleets in number. has criticized U.S. FONOPs near as provocative, while asserting its own patrols to enforce claims. To counterbalance Chinese expansion, the U.S. relies on alliances and partnerships forming a "hub-and-spokes" network, including the 1951 ANZUS treaty with and (suspended for in 1986 over nuclear policy) and bilateral pacts with and the , which host U.S. rotational forces. The (Quad), revived in 2017 among the U.S., , , and , focuses on and joint exercises like Malabar, with 2024 summits emphasizing supply chain resilience amid Pacific rivalries. Complementing this, the 2021 pact between , the , and U.S. commits to delivering nuclear-powered submarines to by the 2030s, enhancing deterrence against Chinese naval advances in the Pacific; as of 2025, it includes technology transfers for hypersonics and cyber capabilities. These groupings have prompted China's hybrid responses, including economic coercion against (e.g., 2020-2023 trade restrictions on and wine) and diplomatic pushback at forums like the 2025 .

Contemporary Developments

Recent Oceanographic Anomalies

In 2023–2024, the Pacific Ocean experienced a strong El Niño event, characterized by (SST) anomalies of approximately 2.0°C above average in the equatorial Pacific, ranking among the five strongest such events since records began in the mid-20th century. This event featured a distinctive spatial double peak, with elevated SSTs first in the central equatorial Pacific followed by the eastern region, contributing to basin-wide heat content increases prior to and during its early stages. The El Niño peaked in late 2023 and gradually weakened through 2024, transitioning to neutral conditions by September 2024 and emerging La Niña conditions by early 2025, marked by negative SST anomalies of -0.3°C in the Niño 3.4 region for July–September 2025. These shifts influenced global , with lingering impacts on and marine productivity into 2025. Concurrent with ENSO variability, persistent marine heatwaves plagued the North Pacific, including a recurrence of the "Blob"—a large-scale warm anomaly—evident annually from 2019 through 2025. In 2025, the Northeast Pacific endured NEP25A, a major heatwave initiating in May and covering much of the U.S. by , ranking as the fourth-largest since 1982. Sea surface temperatures in the northern and central Pacific from to 2025 exceeded the prior 2022 record by over 0.25°C across an area comparable to the continental , with August marking the third-warmest on record globally, driven by intensified anomalies in the eastern North Pacific. These heatwaves correlated with low chlorophyll-a concentrations in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific in 2024, signaling reduced productivity. In the South-West Pacific, ocean warming intensified in 2024, with heat content anomalies harming ecosystems and fisheries, exacerbating vulnerabilities in island communities. The 2023–2024 global SST jump, including Pacific contributions, represented a rare event with a 1-in-512-year probability under historical warming trends, though North Pacific anomalies were only the second-largest on record during this period. These anomalies, while partly linked to long-term trends, exhibited rapid escalations potentially amplified by internal variability, as evidenced by predictable exceedance of 2023 warmth in 2024 forecasts.

Technological and Scientific Advances

Advances in remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) have facilitated unprecedented access to Pacific Ocean trenches, revealing chemosynthetic ecosystems at depths over 9,000 meters in July . These expeditions documented diverse assemblages, including clam beds, bacterial mats resembling ice, and tube worm fields, sustained by from and rather than . Such findings, enabled by high-resolution and sampling tools integrated into ROVs, challenge prior assumptions about the minimal in hadal zones and highlight the role of tectonic in fostering these isolated habitats. In September 2025, biologists identified three new in the eastern Pacific, including a notably compact variant, using advanced submersibles and genetic analysis during surveys targeting abyssal hotspots. These discoveries underscore the untapped in the Pacific's hadal realms, where of sensors and AI-driven image recognition have accelerated taxonomic identifications amid logistical challenges of extreme pressure and darkness. Autonomous systems, such as the AUV deployed by Minerals, have advanced mapping and resource prospecting in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, integrating , magnetometers, and real-time data for polymetallic nodule assessment as of August 2025. Concurrently, AI models developed by Pacific research teams forecast underwater debris trajectories, enhancing pollution tracking in gyres like the Great Pacific Garbage Patch through satellite-oceanic . The U.S. Navy's Next Generation Ocean Data Ingest (NGODI) system, advanced by NIWC Pacific in April 2025, processes multi-sensor inputs for real-time environmental modeling, improving predictive accuracy for currents and acoustics across vast Pacific expanses. Offshore renewable energy research along the employs hydrodynamic simulations and AUV-deployed sensors to evaluate impacts on dynamics, with studies from 2020-2025 quantifying minimal disruptions to flows under specific configurations. These technologies, combining dual-use platforms for and , address challenges in harnessing Pacific wave and tidal resources while mitigating ecological interference.

Policy and Conflict Updates

In October 2025, the conducted multiple military strikes against vessels suspected of drug trafficking in the eastern , including two operations off the coast of that resulted in the deaths of five individuals, marking an expansion of such actions beyond the . These incidents, part of a broader 2025 campaign that has killed at least 43 people across ten strikes, reflect heightened U.S. counternarcotics efforts in where approximately 74% of transits occur, though critics question the legality and escalation risks under . Tensions in the escalated in October 2025 when Chinese Coast Guard vessels rammed and used water cannons against a Philippine fisheries vessel on , prompting U.S. condemnation of the actions as dangerous and destabilizing. The responded by conducting military exercises to defend strategic islands like Balabac in , amid ongoing disputes where has pursued bilateral diplomacy with claimants since 2024 while maintaining expansive territorial assertions rejected by the 2016 arbitral ruling. On the policy front, U.S. President reaffirmed support for the security pact in October 2025 during meetings with Australian Prime Minister , pledging to expedite delivery of nuclear-powered submarines to starting with Virginia-class transfers and enabling U.S. and basing in Perth from 2027. This commitment, aimed at countering China's military expansion in the , includes 's $1.6 billion contribution for 2025–26 to bolster U.S. defense capacity, though proposals to expand to additional shipbuilding nations signal potential broadening of the alliance. At the Ocean Conference in 2025, Pacific Island leaders advocated for enhanced international frameworks on sea-level rise and , emphasizing preservation under the Pacific continuum amid climate threats. Concurrently, the U.S. transmitted the Agreement on Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ ) to the in December 2024 for , targeting high-seas conservation, while global efforts advanced toward a plastics and subsidy reforms to protect marine ecosystems.

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