Hubbry Logo
Timeline of ChristianityTimeline of ChristianityMain
Open search
Timeline of Christianity
Community hub
Timeline of Christianity
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Timeline of Christianity
Timeline of Christianity
Timeline of Christianity
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Part of a series on
Christianity
Principal symbol of Christianity
Theology
Related topics

The purpose of this timeline is to give a detailed historical account of the real historical events of Christianity from the beginning of the current era (CE / AD) to the present. A.D. is the abbreviation of the Latin term "anno Domini" which translates to "the year of our Lord". Among English speakers, A.D. was used with the words spelled out in Latin or in English on official documents and private letters before the 21st century. Question marks ('?') below on dates indicate approximate dates. Christian events include miracles and fufilled Hebrew prophecies.

The year one is the first year in the Christian calendar (there is no year zero), which is the calendar presently used (in unison with the Gregorian calendar) almost everywhere in the world. Traditionally, this was held to be the year Jesus was born; however, most modern scholars argue for an earlier or later date, the most agreed upon being between 6 BC and 4 BC.

Background historical timeline

[edit]
Main article: Historical background of the New Testament

Timeline of Jesus' ministry

[edit]

Jesus began his ministry after his baptism by John and during the rule of Pilate, preaching: "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near" (Matthew 4:12–17). Non-Catholic historians and the Catholic Church teaches that the gospel accounts depict historic events. While the historicity of the gospel accounts is questioned to some extent by some critical scholars and non-Christians, the traditional view states the following chronology for his ministry:

Prophecies

[edit]

Second Coming Prophecy to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment, and establishment of the Kingdom of God and the Messianic Age.

Apostolic Age

[edit]
Main article: Apostolic Age

Shortly after the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Nisan 14 or 15), the Jerusalem church was founded as the first Christian church with about 120 Jews and Jewish Proselytes (Acts 1:15), followed by the events of

The following table is edited to be more readable
Year Date History Image
37–41 Crisis under Caligula is seen as the first clear conflict between Rome and the Jews.[8]
Before 44 Epistle of James is written by James the Great, originally in Koine Greek.
Memorial to Lajos Fülep quoting James 3:17, "But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere."
44? Death of Saint James the Great - According to a medieval tradition, on 2th of January of the year 40 AD, the Virgin Mary appeared to James on a pillar on the bank of the Ebro River at Caesaraugusta, while he was preaching the Gospel in Spain. Following that vision, St. James returned to Judea, where he was beheaded by King Herod Agrippa I in the year 44 AD during a Passover. Herod then proceeded to arrest St. Peter (Nisan 15) (Acts 12:1–3).
St. James the Apostle (1612-1613)
44 The death of Herod Agrippa I (Last king of Judea) occurred when an angel of the Lord struck him down, resulting in him being eaten by worms and dying.[9] (Acts 12:20–23)
King Herod II
44–46? Theudas was beheaded by Procurator Cuspius Fadus for saying he would part the Jordan River (like Moses with the Red Sea or Joshua with the Jordan). After him, Judas the Galilean rose up at the time of the census and gathered followers; he also perished, and all who followed him were scattered.[10] (Acts 5:36–37 places it before the Census of Quirinius)
45–49? Mission of Barnabas and Paul, (Acts 13:1–14:28) to Cyprus, Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe (there they were called "gods ... in human form"), then return to Syrian Antioch: Map1
47 The Church of the East is created by Saint Thomas in the Persian Empire (modern-day Iraq and Iran)
48 Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15).

Gentile Christians accepted alongside those in the Jewish tradition.

48–100 Herod Agrippa II appointed King of the Jews by Claudius, seventh and last of the Herodians
Herod Agrippa II
49 Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome, stating, "the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus."[11] (referenced in Acts 18:2)[12]
Sculpture of Claudius
50 Passover riot in Jerusalem, 20,000–30,000 killed[13][14]
50? Council of Jerusalem and the "Apostolic Decree" of Acts 15:1–35, same as Galatians 2:1–10?, which is followed by the Incident at Antioch[15] at which Paul publicly accuses Peter of "Judaizing" (2:11–21); see also Circumcision controversy in early Christianity
50–53? St. Paul's 2nd mission (Acts 15:36–18:22), split with Barnabas, to Phrygia, Galatia, Macedonia, Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, Corinth, "he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken", then return to Antioch; 1 Thessalonians, Galatians written? Map2. Lydia of Thyatira, a seller of purple, becomes the first European Christian convert[16] (Acts 16:11-15)
51–52 or 52–53 Proconsulship of Gallio according to an inscription, only fixed date in chronology of Paul[17]
52 November 21 St. Thomas the Apostle lands in India.[18][19][20] Establishes churches at Kodungalloor, Palayoor, Paraur, Kottakkav, Kokkamangalam, Nilakkal, Niranam and Kollam
St. Thomas the Apostle
53–57? St. Paul's 3rd mission, (Acts 18:23–22:30), to Galatia, Phrygia, Corinth, Ephesus, Macedonia, Greece, and Jerusalem where James the Just challenges him about rumor of teaching antinomianism (21:21); he addresses a crowd in their language (most likely Aramaic); Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philippians written? Map3
55? "Egyptian Prophet" (allusion to Moses) and 30,000 unarmed Jews doing The Exodus reenactment massacred by Procurator Antonius Felix,[21][22] Acts 21:38)
58? St. Paul arrested, accused of being a revolutionary, "ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes", teaching resurrection of the dead, imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23–26)
59? After St. Paul was shipwrecked on Malta, he was called a god. (Acts 28:6)
60? St. Paul in Rome was greeted by many "brothers". Three days later, he called together the Jewish leaders, who had not received any word from Judea about him but were curious about "this sect," which was spoken against everywhere. He tried to convince them from the "law and prophets", with partial success. He said the Gentiles would listen and spent two years proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching "the Lord Jesus Christ"(Acts 28:15–31); Epistle to Philemon written?
60–65 The early date for the writing of the First Epistle of Peter is debated among scholars, but it is generally believed to have been written around this date. (written by Peter)
62 James the Just is stoned to death for law transgression by High Priest Ananus ben Artanus. Popular opinion against this act resulted in Ananus being deposed by the new procurator Lucceius Albinus[23]
St. James the Just
63–107? Simeon, 2nd Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified under Trajan
Simeon the Apostle
64–68 after July 18 Great Fire of Rome; Nero blames and persecutes the Christians (or Chrestians[24]), possibly the earliest mention of Christians by that name, in Rome; see also Tacitus on Jesus; Paul beheaded? (Col 1:24,Eph 3:13,2 Tim 4:6–8,1Clem 5:5-7), Peter crucified upside-down? (Jn 21:18,1 Pet 5:13,Tertullian's Prescription Against Heretics chapter XXXVI,Eusebius' Church History Book III chapter I), "...a vast multitude, were convicted, not so much of the crime of incendiarism as of hatred of the human race. And in their deaths they were made the subjects of sport; for they were wrapped in the hides of wild beasts and torn to pieces by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set on fire, and when day declined, were burned to serve for nocturnal lights." (Annals (Tacitus) XV.44)
64/67(?)–76/79(?) Pope Linus succeeds Peter as Episcopus Romanus (Bishop of Rome)
64 The Epistle to the Hebrews written by an Unknown Author
65 The Q document, a hypothetical Greek text thought by many critical scholars to have been used in the writing of Matthew and Luke
66–73 First Jewish–Roman War: destruction of Herod's Temple and end of Judaism according to Supersessionism; Qumran community (site of Dead Sea Scrolls found in 1947) destroyed
70(+/–10)? Gospel of Mark, written in Rome, by Peter's interpreter (1 Peter 5:13), The original ending of the gospel is believed to be lost, and additional endings were added around c. 400 (Mark 16)
The end of Mark 15 (excluding verse 47
70? The Signs Gospel written, hypothetical Greek text used in the Gospel of John to prove Jesus is the Messiah
Saint John the Evangelist, Domenichino
70–100? Additional Pauline Epistles(??)
70-132 The Epistle of Barnabas (Apostolic Fathers)
70–200? The Gospel of Thomas, the Jewish-Christian Gospels: the Gospel of the Ebionites, the Gospel of the Hebrews, the Gospel of the Nazarenes
Gospel of Thomas and The Secret Book of John
72 July 3 Martyrdom of St. Thomas the Apostle at Chinnamala, Mylapore, Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
76/79(?)–88 Pope Anacletus: first Greek Pope, who succeeds Linus as Episcopus Romanus (Bishop of Rome)
Pope Anacletus
80(+/-20) the Didache written in Koine Greek
80(+/-20)? The Gospel of Matthew, based on Mark and Q, most popular in Early Christianity
Gospel of Matthew
80(+/-20)? The Gospel of Luke, based on Mark and Q, also Acts of the Apostles by same author
Gospel of Luke
80(+/-20)? The Pastoral Epistles written (possible post-Pauline authorship)
88–101? Clement, fourth Bishop of Rome: wrote Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians (Apostolic Fathers)
90? Council of Jamnia of Judaism (disputed); Domitian applies the Fiscus Judaicus tax even to those who merely "lived like Jews"[25]
90(+/-10)? The late date for the writing of 1 Peter (associate of Peter as author)
94 Testimonium Flavianum, disputed section of Jewish Antiquities by Josephus in Aramaic, translated to Koine Greek
95(+/-30)? The Gospel of John and the Epistles of John
90 The Book of Revelation written, by John (son of Zebedee) and/or a disciple of his
96 Nerva modifies the Fiscus Judaicus, from then on, practicing Jews must pay taxes while Christians do not[26]
98–117? Ignatius, third Bishop of Antioch, fed to the lions in the Roman Colosseum, advocated the Bishop (Eph 6:1, Mag 2:1,6:1,7:1,13:2, Tr 3:1, Smy 8:1,9:1), rejected Sabbath on Saturday in favor of "The Lord's Day" (Sunday). (Mag 9.1), rejected Judaizing (Mag 10.3), first recorded use of the term catholic (Smy 8:2).
100(+/-10)? The Epistle of Jude was likely written by Jude, a doubting relative of Jesus (Mark 6:3). It was rejected by some early Christians due to its reference to the apocryphal Book of Enoch.


Ante-Nicene period

[edit]
Main article: Christianity in the ante-Nicene period

First Seven Ecumenical Councils

[edit]
Main article: First seven ecumenical councils

Constantine called the First Council of Nicaea in 325 to unify Christology, also called the first great Christian council by Jerome, the first ecumenical, decreed the Original Nicene Creed, but rejected by Nontrinitarians such as Arius, Theonas, Secundus of Ptolemais, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Theognis of Nicaea who were excommunicated, also addressed Easter controversy and passed 20 Canon laws such as Canon VII which granted special recognition to Jerusalem.

Middle Ages

[edit]
Main article: Christianity in the Middle Ages

Renaissance

[edit]
Main article: Medieval history of Christianity § Late Middle Ages (1300–1499)
See also: Renaissance

Reformation

[edit]
See also: Reformation

17th century

[edit]
See also: Age of Reason

18th century

[edit]
See also: Age of Enlightenment

19th century

[edit]
See also: Industrial Revolution

20th century

[edit]
Main article: Christianity in the 20th century

21st century

[edit]
Main article: Christianity in the 21st century

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
  • Academic American Encyclopedia (on Compuserve)
  • Catholic Encyclopedia: Biblical Chronology
  • English Versions of the Bible by John Berchmans Dockery O.F.M.
  • Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary
  • World Almanac and Book of Facts
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Timeline of Christianity

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The timeline of Christianity records the sequence of historical events central to the religion's emergence, growth, and transformations, commencing with the ministry and of Nazareth under Roman prefect around 30–33 CE in . Subsequent milestones include the apostolic missions led by figures such as Peter and Paul, which disseminated Jesus' teachings across the amid sporadic persecutions, culminating in the faith's legalization via the in 313 CE under Emperor Constantine and its designation as the by in 380 CE. Key developments encompass the ecumenical councils defining core doctrines like the and , the Great Schism of 1054 dividing Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions, and the Protestant Reformation sparked by Martin Luther's in 1517, which fractured into diverse denominations. Later phases feature global expansions during the Age of Exploration, confrontations with Enlightenment rationalism and scientific advancements, internal revivals such as the Great Awakenings, and 20th-century events including world wars, the rise of , and Vatican II's liturgical reforms, alongside ongoing tensions between secularization in the West and rapid growth in the Global South.

Jewish Antecedents and Prophecies

Second Temple Judaism Context

The in , spanning from the reconstruction of the Temple in 516 BCE until its destruction by Roman forces in 70 CE, represented a era of restoration following the Babylonian exile and marked the religious and cultural matrix from which emerged. The Temple's rebuilding under , facilitated by Persian imperial permission after the Great's edict in 538 BCE allowing Jewish return from exile, centralized sacrificial worship and pilgrimage as core practices, drawing from prescriptions while adapting to foreign dominions including Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman rule. This period saw the consolidation of Jewish scriptures, with prophetic writings like and Daniel influencing eschatological views, and the emergence of synagogue-based study complementing Temple rituals. Politically, the era encompassed subjugation under successive empires: Achaemenid Persia until Alexander the Great's conquest in 332 BCE, followed by Ptolemaic and Seleucid Hellenistic rule that introduced cultural Hellenization tensions, culminating in the (167–160 BCE) against Antiochus IV's desecration of the Temple, which restored Jewish autonomy under the until Roman intervention in 63 BCE. Herod the Great's expansions of the Temple complex around 20 BCE enhanced its grandeur but underscored Roman oversight, fostering resentment among who maintained covenantal fidelity to amid diaspora communities and internal diversity. Key events included the of Hebrew scriptures into Greek () circa 3rd–2nd centuries BCE, aiding Jewish dispersion, and apocalyptic literature reflecting hopes for divine intervention against oppressors. Religiously, featured diverse sects documented by the historian : the , who emphasized oral traditions alongside written , belief in , and balanced with divine providence; the , priestly elites rejecting and , focused on Temple administration; and the , ascetic communities practicing communal property and ritual purity, possibly linked to scrolls. These groups coexisted with broader monotheistic practices, including messianic expectations drawn from prophecies like those in and of a Davidic king or anointed figure to restore , amid rising envisioning cosmic judgment and . Such elements provided the interpretive framework for of Nazareth's ministry, as early Christian claims positioned him within Jewish scriptural fulfillment rather than innovation. The Temple's destruction in 70 CE by Titus during the First Jewish-Roman War shattered centralized cultic life, prompting shifts toward rabbinic interpretation, but the preceding centuries' theological emphases on covenant, , and directly informed nascent Christianity's self-understanding as heir to Israel's promises.

Messianic Expectations and Prophetic Fulfillments

In (c. 516 BCE–70 CE), messianic expectations drew from prophetic texts envisioning a Davidic descendant who would restore Israel's sovereignty, defeat oppressors, and establish universal peace and justice, as articulated in passages like Isaiah 11:1–5 and Jeremiah 23:5–6. These hopes intensified amid Hellenistic and Roman domination, with texts such as the (c. 60 BCE) depicting a righteous king purging of gentiles and ruling with divine authority. Expectations were not uniform; some anticipated a royal warrior-messiah, others a priestly figure or prophetic herald, reflecting diverse interpretations influenced by groups like the . The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered near Qumran and dated primarily to the 2nd century BCE–1st century CE, provide primary evidence of these variegated hopes, including references to dual messiahs—a priestly one from Aaron and a royal one from Israel—in texts like the Community Rule (1QS IX, 11). The Messianic Apocalypse (4Q521) describes an eschatological figure who heals the wounded, revives the dead, and preaches good news to the poor, echoing Isaiah 61:1–2 and aligning with broader apocalyptic motifs in Daniel 7's "Son of Man." Such documents indicate messianism incorporated suffering or preparatory elements before the Hasmonean-Roman era revolts, though mainstream expectations emphasized national liberation over individual atonement. Early Christian texts, composed c. 50–100 CE, presented (c. 4 BCE–30 CE) as fulfilling these prophecies, interpreting his virgin birth in ( 5:2; :1–6), triumphal entry on a (Zechariah 9:9; Matthew 21:1–11), betrayal for (Zechariah 11:12–13; Matthew 27:3–10), and wounds (Psalm 22:16; :5–9) as direct correspondences. The authors, particularly Matthew and the author of , argued that embodied the suffering servant of and the exalted Davidic king, with his validating claims like Psalm 16:10. Christian scholars estimate 200–400 such alignments, viewing unfulfilled aspects—like global peace—as deferred to a second advent, contrasting Jewish critiques that lacked political restoration or temple rebuilding (:26–28). This interpretive framework, rooted in first-century Jewish but reframed through testimony, catalyzed Christianity's emergence as a messianic movement distinct from .

Ministry of Jesus Christ (c. 4 BC–AD 33)

Birth, Early Life, and Baptism

The birth of is recounted in the infancy narratives of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, which describe it occurring in of during the final years of Herod the Great's reign. These accounts portray Mary, his mother, as a virgin betrothed to , a carpenter from , with the birth prompted by a Roman under that required Joseph's ancestral registration in . Scholarly estimates, informed by Herod's death in 4 BC and astronomical correlations with the , place the event between 6 BC and 4 BC, though some analyses cluster around 3–2 BC based on ancient informants. Matthew records a visit by from the East and Herod's subsequent massacre of infants in , leading to the family's flight to for refuge until Herod's death. Following their return from , , and settled in in , where archaeological evidence confirms the village's existence as a small, modest Jewish settlement in the first century BC and AD, characterized by simple rock-cut dwellings and agricultural life. The Gospels provide scant details on ' childhood and adolescence, portraying him as raised in a pious Jewish household observant of customs, including annual pilgrimages to . Luke alone mentions an episode at age twelve, when , during a visit, remained in the temple discoursing with religious teachers, astonishing them with his understanding, before rejoining his parents. Beyond this, historical records are silent until adulthood, with likely trained in Joseph's trade as a tekton (craftsman or builder), reflecting the socioeconomic realities of peasant life under Roman provincial rule. Jesus' public ministry commenced with his baptism by in the , an event attested across the (Matthew, Mark, Luke) and implied in John. Luke dates John's preaching to the fifteenth year of Caesar's reign (c. AD 28–29), positioning Jesus' baptism shortly thereafter, when he was about thirty years old. The rite involved full immersion, symbolizing repentance and preparation for the kingdom of God; during it, the accounts describe the heavens opening, the descending like a dove, and a voice declaring Jesus as God's beloved Son. This baptism marked a pivotal transition, authenticating Jesus' messianic role amid John's ascetic movement, though John initially resisted, deeming himself unworthy. Historical corroboration for comes from , confirming his baptizing activity and execution under around AD 28–36.

Public Teachings, Miracles, and Discipleship

Jesus' public ministry commenced circa AD 28–29, following his baptism by in the , as dated by the fifteenth year of Caesar's reign (:1). He initially preached in , particularly around Capernaum, which served as a base for his activities, emphasizing the proclamation of the kingdom of God as imminent and calling for repentance (Mark 1:14–15). His teachings often occurred in synagogues, open fields, and hillsides, drawing crowds through oral discourse rather than written texts, and focused on ethical imperatives such as love for God and neighbor, forgiveness, and humility, as exemplified in the (Matthew 5–7). Parables, drawn from everyday agrarian life—like the sower, , and prodigal son—illustrated spiritual truths, with approximately 30–40 such stories recorded across the , underscoring themes of divine reversal and judgment (). The Gospels attribute numerous miracles to Jesus, categorized as healings, exorcisms, nature interventions, and raisings from the dead, totaling around 35 accounts that portray him as a wonder-worker active throughout his ministry. Healings included restoring sight to the blind (e.g., Bartimaeus in Mark 10:46–52), cleansing lepers (Matthew 8:1–4), and curing paralysis (Mark 2:1–12), often performed with physical touch or verbal command, and linked to faith as a precondition. Exorcisms expelled demons from possessed individuals, reflecting first-century Jewish beliefs in spiritual causation of illness (Mark 5:1–20). Nature miracles encompassed calming a storm (Mark 4:35–41), feeding multitudes with scant provisions (e.g., 5,000 with five loaves and two fish in John 6:1–14), and walking on water (Matthew 14:22–33), events tied to demonstrations of authority over creation. Raisings, such as Lazarus after four days (John 11:1–44), are presented as culminating signs, though scholarly analysis notes these reports derive from early Christian oral traditions without independent corroboration outside the New Testament, raising questions of historical verifiability versus theological intent. Non-Christian sources, like Josephus' Antiquities (c. AD 93), describe Jesus as a "doer of wonderful works," but the passage's authenticity is partially disputed due to later Christian interpolations. Discipleship formed a core element, beginning with the calling of initial followers from fishermen and tax collectors, symbolizing a break from prior occupations to full-time commitment (Mark 1:16–20). selected twelve apostles to represent the , formally commissioning them after prayerful selection (Luke 6:12–16; Mark 3:13–19), with names including Simon Peter, , James, John, , Bartholomew, Matthew, , , Thaddaeus, , and . Variations in listing order across Gospels reflect thematic emphases rather than chronological discrepancy, as the core group remained consistent. involved itinerant , shared meals, and private explanations of parables, fostering intimacy amid ministry (Mark 4:10–12), culminating in their empowerment to preach, heal, and exorcise during a mission in pairs (:1–14). This structure emphasized replication, with disciples as extensions of ' authority, though betrayals like Judas' foreshadowed tensions.

Passion, Crucifixion, Resurrection, and Ascension

The refers to the final period of his suffering, encompassing the , betrayal, arrest, trials, and , as detailed in the (Matthew 26–27, Mark 14–15, Luke 22–23) and John 13–19. During the on Thursday evening, Jesus instituted the , predicting his betrayal by , who led Roman soldiers and temple guards to arrest him in the that night. Jesus underwent trials before Jewish authorities, including the high priest , who accused him of for claiming messiahship, and then before Roman prefect , who found no crime but yielded to crowd pressure for under for . Jesus was crucified on Friday, likely April 7, AD 30, during under Pilate's administration, a date supported by astronomical alignments of lunar calendars and Gospel references to Passover timing, though some analyses favor April 3, AD 33 based on seismic and eclipse data in non-canonical sources. The occurred at Golgotha outside , involving scourging, a , carrying the crossbeam, and nailing to the cross between two criminals, with death by asphyxiation and shock after about six hours, confirmed by a spear thrust yielding blood and water. Roman historian corroborates the execution under Pilate during Tiberius's reign (AD 14–37), noting Jesus's as a historical fact amid early Christian . The claims center on the discovered by women followers on Sunday morning and subsequent appearances to disciples, as recorded in all four Gospels and 1 Corinthians 15:3–8, an early dated to within 2–5 years of the events listing witnesses including Peter, the Twelve, over 500 others, James, and Paul. Historical analysis affirms the disciples' sincere belief in post-mortem encounters, transforming them from fearful deserters to bold proclaimers willing to die, with the multiply attested and unexplained by theft or hallucination theories given Jewish customs and lack of body production by opponents. Skeptics argue insufficient non-Christian corroboration and potential legendary development, but the rapid spread of preaching in , where falsification was verifiable, poses challenges to naturalistic explanations. The ascension occurred 40 days after the , as appeared repeatedly, taught about the kingdom, and then ascended bodily from the near while blessing disciples, who saw him taken into a , per Acts 1:3–11 and :50–53. This event, dated circa May AD 30 or 40 days post-AD 33, marked the end of physical appearances and the commissioning to evangelize, with two angels announcing his return, aligning with early Christian expectation of parousia rather than ongoing earthly presence. No extra-biblical sources directly attest it, but its inclusion in Luke-Acts, written ca. AD 80–90, reflects consistent without evident contradiction.

Apostolic Age (c. AD 30–100)

Pentecost and Initial Evangelism

The Day of , occurring approximately fifty days after ' resurrection and traditionally dated to around AD 30, saw the apostles gathered in when the descended upon them, enabling them to speak in foreign languages understood by diverse Jewish pilgrims present for the feast of . This event, as recorded in the , fulfilled ' promise of empowerment for witness and initiated the public proclamation of . Peter, addressing the astonished crowd, interpreted the phenomenon as the prophesied outpouring of the Spirit from Joel 2:28-32, then declared ' life, death, , and exaltation as the definitive fulfillment of messianic prophecies, urging and for of sins. The response included about three thousand baptisms that day, forming the nucleus of the church. This rapid conversion, while based on the primary account in Acts—a text composed circa AD 80-90 drawing on earlier traditions—aligns with the Jewish festival's large attendance, providing a plausible context for such numbers despite limited extra-biblical corroboration. The nascent community, numbering initially around 120 before and swelling thereafter, practiced communal devotion to apostolic doctrine, shared meals, prayer, and property distribution to meet needs, while continuing temple attendance. Miracles, such as healings, authenticated the message, attracting further adherents daily—"the added to their number those who were being saved"—with centered on proclaiming ' amid growing favor among the populace. Opposition arose quickly from authorities, leading to apostolic arrests after public healings, like that of a lame beggar at the temple, yet Peter and John's bold defenses emphasized in alone, resulting in releases but ongoing preaching. This initial phase confined largely to Jerusalem's Jewish population, with communal life fostering internal cohesion before outward expansion, though internal strains like Ananias and Sapphira's deception prompted divine judgments to preserve integrity. The pattern—Spirit-empowered proclamation yielding conversions despite —set the trajectory for broader dissemination, prioritizing over formalized strategy.

Missionary Journeys of Paul and Apostles

Paul's conversion occurred circa AD 33–35, when, traveling to to persecute , he experienced a vision of the resurrected , leading to his and initial preaching in synagogues. This event marked his shift from persecutor to apostle to the Gentiles, as corroborated by his own letters and the . Following a period of retreat in Arabia and ministry in and (Galatians 1:17–18), Paul relocated to Antioch in around AD 35–44, where he taught and prepared for evangelistic expansion. The first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:28), undertaken with and circa AD 46–48, began from Antioch, sailing to where they preached in synagogues and confronted the sorcerer before proconsul . From , they proceeded to in (where Mark deserted), then Antioch in , Iconium, Lystra, and , establishing churches amid opposition from Jewish leaders and establishing elders. Returning via Attalia to Antioch, Paul reported the mission's success in converting Gentiles without full law observance, setting the stage for the . The second journey (Acts 15:36–18:22), circa AD 49–52, involved Paul and after a dispute with , who took Mark to separately. They strengthened churches in and , then through and , received a vision directing them to Macedonia. Key stops included (where converted and Paul was imprisoned after exorcising a spirit from a slave girl), Thessalonica (forced out after riots), Berea (noble reception but pursuit), (address to philosophers on the , few converts), and an 18-month stay in establishing the church with Aquila and . Returning via (brief synagogue teaching) and Caesarea to Antioch, this journey extended evangelism into . The third journey (Acts 18:23–21:16), circa AD 53–57, revisited and for strengthening, with extended ministry in (over two years, including miracles and riots from silversmiths over worship). Paul then traveled through Macedonia and (), collecting aid for believers, before returning via Troas (Eutychus raised) and (farewell to Ephesian elders). This culminated in his arrest in after warnings of peril. A fourth journey to as prisoner (Acts 27–28), circa AD 59–62, involved shipwreck on (miraculous healings) and two years of house arrest preaching unhindered. Among other apostles, Peter's activities included ministry in and (–12), with tradition placing him in Antioch and later , supported by early references like 1 Clement (c. AD 96) attesting his martyrdom under . , led the church until his execution circa AD 62, focusing on Jewish Christians rather than extensive travel. Evidence for journeys of apostles like (to ) or Bartholomew (to Armenia) relies on later traditions (e.g., 3rd-century ), lacking contemporary corroboration beyond the (Matthew 28:19–20) and internal hints of dispersion. Scholarly consensus affirms Paul's travels as best-attested via and epistles, while others' missions infer from church foundations in regions like (Mark) or , but archaeological and textual evidence remains sparse.

New Testament Composition and Early Church Structure

The composition of documents commenced with the authentic epistles of Paul, written between approximately AD 50 and 60 during his missionary travels. The seven undisputed letters—Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon—address specific church issues and theological concerns, such as justification by faith in Galatians, likely composed around AD 48-55 in response to Judaizing influences following the Jerusalem Council. 1 Thessalonians, dated to circa AD 50, encourages perseverance amid persecution and reflects Paul's initial outreach to Thessalonica after expulsion from there. These dates derive from internal historical allusions to Paul's itinerary and events like the expulsion of from under in AD 49, corroborated by external records. The Gospel of Mark, traditionally attributed to as Peter's interpreter, is dated by scholarly consensus to AD 65-70, shortly before or after the Jewish-Roman War's onset, based on its apocalyptic discourse in chapter 13 predicting Jerusalem's temple desecration and fall, often seen as informed by the AD 66-70 events. Counterarguments for a pre-70 date emphasize the lack of explicit post-destruction references and early patristic testimony linking it to Peter's Roman ministry before his martyrdom circa AD 64-67. Matthew and Luke, incorporating Markan material, follow around AD 80-90, while John's Gospel concludes the canonical Gospels circa AD 90-100, evidenced by its developed theology and late first-century church allusions. The , Luke's sequel, dates to circa AD 80, chronicling apostolic expansion; , the (James, 1-2 Peter, 1-3 John, Jude), and span AD 60-95, with under Domitian's reign around AD 95 per internal exile references to . Earliest surviving New Testament fragments, such as (John Rylands fragment of John 18), dated paleographically to AD 125-150, confirm rapid composition, dissemination, and copying within decades of original authorship, primarily on papyrus in codex or roll form across the . These manuscripts, excavated mainly from Egyptian sites, preserve textual stability, with over 5,800 Greek witnesses attesting to first-century origins despite minor variants from scribal practices. Early church structure relied on apostolic oversight for , , and , with the Twelve and Paul as foundational authorities commissioning leaders. In , James the brother of led the mother church from circa AD 44 until his martyrdom in AD 62, as evidenced by his role in and presiding over the AD 49 Jerusalem Council, where apostles and elders decreed inclusion without full law observance, balancing Jewish roots with universal mission. This council, detailed in and alluded to in , exemplifies collegial governance amid growth tensions. Local assemblies, often house-based, featured elders (presbyteroi) for teaching and oversight, appointed by apostles as in Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, interchangeable early with overseers (episkopoi) for . Deacons (diakonoi), originating in Acts 6's service roles, handled practical needs like alms distribution. Prophets, teachers, and evangelists supplemented, per :11, fostering charismatic yet ordered communities; by century's end, patterns toward singular bishops emerged in key centers like Antioch, though apostolic-era emphasis remained on shared elder plurality under apostolic norms.

Ante-Nicene Period (c. AD 100–325)

Persecutions and Martyrdoms

Persecutions of Christians in the during the Ante-Nicene period were intermittent and regionally varied, driven by perceptions of Christian refusal to honor pagan deities and the as a to social cohesion and state loyalty. These actions contrasted with Judaism's tolerated status under , as Christians lacked ancient precedents and were often accused of or . Local magistrates typically initiated prosecutions, with emperors issuing sporadic edicts that escalated under certain rulers, leading to an estimated several thousand martyrdoms over two centuries, though precise numbers remain uncertain due to limited records. In the early second century, Emperor (r. 98–117 AD) formalized a policy of non-systematic enforcement through correspondence with , governor of Bithynia-Pontus around 112 AD. Pliny reported interrogating , executing those who refused to recant and to Roman gods, while releasing those who apostatized; endorsed this approach, instructing that not be actively sought but punished upon formal accusation. This framework facilitated local persecutions, including the martyrdom of , bishop of , who was arrested, tried in Antioch, and executed by beasts in Rome's arena circa 107–110 AD after refusing to deny Christ during transit. Under (r. 161–180 AD), philosophical did not preclude intensified actions against amid plagues and military setbacks blamed on divine displeasure. In Smyrna, Bishop was arrested in 155 AD, refused to swear by the emperor's genius or curse , and was burned alive in the stadium after the fire failed to consume him, prompting his execution by sword; his martyrdom account emphasizes steadfast confession over evasion. In , the 177 AD persecutions in Lyons and Vienne targeted a diverse community, including slaves like the 15-year-old , who endured whipping, wild beasts, and a red-hot in the amphitheater before succumbing, symbolizing endurance for the church. , a philosopher converted to , was beheaded in circa 165 AD alongside companions for declining to sacrifice, defending the faith as incompatible with in his Apologies. The third century saw empire-wide edicts amid instability. (r. 193–211 AD) issued a 202 AD decree banning conversions to or , sparking North African persecutions; Vibia Perpetua, a 22-year-old noblewoman, and her slave Felicity were imprisoned in , documented Perpetua's visions and trials in her diary, and gored by a heifer then slain by in the arena, refusing familial pleas to recant. Emperor Decius (r. 249–251 AD) ordered universal sacrifices to traditional gods in January 250 AD to restore unity, requiring libelli certificates verifiable by officials; this indirectly devastated Christians, who comprised perhaps 10% of the population in some areas, leading to mass or evasion, with executed upon the order's arrival. Enforcement waned after Decius's death in 251 AD but prompted post-persecution debates over reinstating the lapsi (lapsed). Valerian (r. 253–260 AD) targeted in 257 AD, banning assemblies and confiscating , then all Christians in 258 AD; Bishop Cyprian of was beheaded September 14, 258 AD after exile and trial for non-compliance. The Diocletianic or Great Persecution (303–313 AD), initiated February 23, 303 AD by and , marked the most coordinated effort, issuing four edicts: demolishing churches and burning scriptures, barring Christians from imperial service without sacrifice, freeing slaves who apostatized, and mandating universal compliance under torture. Thousands perished, particularly in the East, with bishops like Peter of Alexandria (beheaded 311 AD) and enduring mutilations, mines, or arenas; enforcement varied, milder in the West under . The campaign faltered due to military failures and administrative resistance, culminating in 's on April 30, 311 AD, granting conditional worship rights while demanding sacrifices. These trials, while causing temporary schisms like over traditores (those surrendering texts), ultimately bolstered Christian resolve and identity through .

Apologists and Theological Foundations

The emergence of Christian apologists in the second and third centuries marked a shift toward defense of the amid Roman persecutions and philosophical critiques. These writers, often addressing emperors or officials directly, refuted accusations of (for rejecting pagan gods), (alleged secret rites), and disloyalty to the state, while articulating core Christian beliefs in , , and ethical living derived from Christ's teachings. Quadratus, of , submitted an apology to Emperor around 124–125 AD, emphasizing fulfilled prophecies and miracles as evidence of Christianity's truth, preserved in fragments quoted by . Aristides of followed circa 125 AD with an apology to , contrasting Christian virtue against pagan vices in a structured of religions. Justin Martyr (c. 100–165 AD), a converted philosopher from Flavia Neapolis, produced the First Apology circa 155–157 AD, addressed to Emperor Antoninus Pius and the Roman senate. In it, Justin argued that Christians worshiped the true God through reason (logos), which he identified with Christ as the preexistent divine Word, partially disseminated in Greek philosophy as "seeds of the Word" (spermatikos logos), but fully revealed in Scripture and fulfilled prophecy. He detailed Christian worship, including baptism and Eucharist as memorials of Christ's passion, and demanded equal justice under law, citing Roman precedents against unjust executions. His Second Apology (c. 161 AD), prompted by martyrdoms under Marcus Aurelius, reinforced these defenses while critiquing Roman demon worship. Justin's Dialogue with Trypho (c. 135–160 AD) engaged Jewish objections, asserting Christ's messiahship through typological interpretations of Old Testament texts. Subsequent apologists built on this framework. penned A Plea for the Christians circa 177 AD to Emperors and , systematically disproving charges of , , and with appeals to Roman philosophy and , while positing God as uncreated unity. (c. 155–240 AD), from , authored the circa 197 AD during Septimius Severus's persecution, mockingly inverting pagan critiques by calling Christianity's growth under suffering proof of divine favor, and outlining doctrines like the soul's and future judgment. Minucius Felix's Octavius (c. 200 AD) dramatized a debate in , using Ciceronian style to affirm Christian and moral superiority without overt . These works, grounded in empirical appeals to history and rather than coercion, influenced imperial tolerance and preserved Christian thought amid oral traditions' limitations. Theological foundations solidified concurrently through systematic treatises combating internal heresies like , which posited secret knowledge and dualistic matter-spirit divides incompatible with apostolic witness. of Lyons (c. 130–202 AD), in Against Heresies (c. 180 AD), established the "" as a creedal summary of Scripture's unified narrative—creation, incarnation, redemption—refuting Gnostic emanations by emphasizing God's direct involvement via the incarnate Logos, with Christ's recapitulation reversing Adam's fall. This countered Marcion's (c. 140 AD) rejection of the God as inferior, affirming scriptural continuity. advanced Trinitarian language, coining trinitas circa 200–213 AD in Against Praxeas, describing one substance (substantia) in three persons (personae)—Father, Son, Spirit—distinguishing economic roles while preserving unity against modalism, though his later Montanist leanings complicated reception. Origen of Alexandria (c. 185–254 AD) synthesized Platonic philosophy with exegesis in On First Principles (c. 225 AD), pioneering systematic theology: allegorical Scripture interpretation to resolve tensions (e.g., anthropomorphisms as accommodations), preexistence of souls (later contested), and universal restoration (apokatastasis), positing free will's primacy in salvation amid God's foreknowledge. Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215 AD) earlier integrated Hellenistic paideia in Stromata, viewing faith as preparatory for gnosis as moral knowledge of God, with Christ as divine pedagogue. These efforts, drawing from apostolic traditions like Ignatius of Antioch's (c. 107 AD) episcopal emphasis and baptismal formulas, laid groundwork for conciliar definitions, prioritizing causal links from Scripture to doctrine over speculative novelty, despite philosophical borrowings' risks of subordinationism (e.g., Origen's eternal generation). Empirical church practices—catechumenate, creed recitation—reinforced these against esoteric alternatives, fostering doctrinal coherence by 325 AD.

Heresies and Early Doctrinal Debates

![Gospel of Thomas from Nag Hammadi][float-right] In the second century, Gnostic movements emerged, positing a dualistic cosmology where a transcendent created spiritual beings but an inferior fashioned the material world, deemed evil. Adherents believed salvation came through esoteric knowledge () rather than in Christ's , often viewing as a divine who merely appeared to impart this wisdom. Key figures included , active around 120-140 AD in , and Valentinus, who taught in circa 140-160 AD and developed complex emanation theories from the divine . These views drew from Platonic and Eastern influences but diverged from apostolic traditions emphasizing creation's goodness and Christ's bodily . Irenaeus of Lyons, in his work Against Heresies composed around 180 AD, systematically refuted Gnostic systems, arguing they lacked and contradicted Scripture's unified narrative . He stressed the unity of God as Creator and Redeemer, affirming Christ's real humanity and as essential for human . Gnostic texts, such as those discovered at in 1945, including the Gospel of Thomas dated to the mid-second century, exemplify these teachings with sayings attributed to emphasizing secret wisdom over public proclamation. Marcion, a shipowner from Sinope, arrived in Rome around 140 AD and was excommunicated in 144 AD for rejecting the Old Testament God as a wrathful demiurge distinct from the merciful Father revealed by Jesus. He compiled a canon excluding the Old Testament and altering New Testament books—primarily an edited Gospel of Luke and ten Pauline epistles—to eliminate Jewish elements, promoting a radical discontinuity between law and gospel. This heresy prompted early church leaders like Tertullian to defend the continuity of God's character across both Testaments, influencing the eventual formation of the orthodox canon. Montanism, originating around 170 AD in under and prophetesses Maximilla and Prisca, emphasized ongoing through ecstatic as the Paraclete's fulfillment of John's Gospel. Proponents advocated ascetic rigor, imminent , and a in Pepuza, but were condemned by synods for subordinating Scripture to private prophecies and disrupting . later joined the movement circa 200 AD, defending its prophetic claims against perceived complacency in the post-apostolic church, yet mainstream leaders like viewed it as schismatic excess. Christological debates intensified with , prevalent from the late first to second centuries, which denied Christ's genuine humanity by claiming his body was illusory, thus undermining the reality of , suffering, and . warned against Docetists around 110 AD, insisting on touching the eucharistic flesh of the incarnate Lord. arose in the second and third centuries, either as dynamic —positing as a man empowered by God at —or modalistic views equating , , and Spirit as manifestations of one person, as in Sabellius's teachings circa 220 AD. , bishop of Antioch, promoted adoptionist ideas and was deposed by a in 268 AD for subordinating the to the . These controversies necessitated clearer articulations of , with figures like coining trinitas around 213 AD to affirm one God in three persons, and Hippolytus's circa 225 AD cataloging errors to preserve apostolic . By challenging scriptural interpretation, , and authority, heresies inadvertently spurred doctrinal consolidation, setting the stage for ecumenical councils while highlighting the church's reliance on and emerging episcopal oversight against individualistic innovations.

Imperial Recognition and Ecumenical Councils (c. AD 325–600)

Constantinian Shift and Edict of Milan

In 312 AD, Emperor Constantine I, ruling the , marched on to confront his rival , leading to the on October 28. Constantine's forces achieved a decisive victory, resulting in Maxentius's death and consolidating Constantine's control over the western provinces. This event marked a pivotal moment, as ancient accounts from of Caesarea and report that Constantine experienced a divine vision prior to the battle, seeing a cross-like symbol (the Chi-Rho, formed by the Greek letters for Christ) accompanied by the words "In this sign, you shall conquer." In response, Constantine ordered his troops to mark their shields with this symbol, attributing the victory to the Christian God rather than traditional pagan deities. While debates persist over whether this constituted a full personal conversion—Constantine delayed until his deathbed in 337 AD—the battle prompted him to favor Christianity politically, initiating policies that elevated the faith from marginal status. The following year, in February 313 AD, Constantine allied with , emperor of the , to issue the from (). This proclamation granted legal tolerance to Christianity and all religions throughout the empire, explicitly ending state-sponsored persecutions that had intensified under from 303 AD. It restored confiscated church properties, exempted from certain civic duties, and allowed Christians to assemble openly, reversing prior edicts like those of in 311 AD that had offered partial toleration but retained pagan primacy. The edict's text, preserved in Lactantius's De Mortibus Persecutorum and Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, emphasized religious freedom as a means to imperial stability, stating that "whatever divinity there may be" should be propitiated freely by all subjects. Issued amid ongoing tetrarchic rivalries, it reflected pragmatic governance rather than unqualified Christian endorsement, as later persecuted Christians before his defeat by Constantine in 324 AD. The denotes the broader transformation triggered by these events, shifting from a persecuted to an imperial ally and paving the way for its institutional dominance. Constantine subsidized church construction, convened synods to resolve disputes (foreshadowing ), and integrated bishops into administrative roles, fostering a church-state that accelerated conversions—Christian adherents grew from roughly 10% of the empire's circa 300 AD to a majority by the late . This alliance, while empirically boosting 's spread through legal protections and resources, introduced tensions: church leaders gained temporal power, potentially compromising apostolic simplicity, and Constantine's continued tolerance of until later reigns (e.g., Theodosius I's edicts in 380-392 AD) underscores the shift's gradual nature rather than an abrupt . Historians note that Constantine's motivations blended sincere piety with , leveraging 's monotheistic cohesion to unify a fracturing amid economic strains and barbarian pressures.

Nicene Creed and Christological Controversies

The , convened by Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325 AD, gathered approximately 318 bishops primarily to resolve the , which questioned the eternal divinity of Christ. , a from , asserted that the Son was created by the Father from nothing and thus subordinate, famously stating "there was [a time] when he was not." In opposition, figures like Alexander of Alexandria and his deacon Athanasius argued for the Son's co-eternality and with the Father, drawing on scriptural interpretations emphasizing Christ's role in creation (John 1:1-3). The council condemned as heresy and formulated the original , declaring the Son "begotten, not made, consubstantial (homoousios) with the Father," to safeguard while affirming Christ's full . This , ratified by most attendees, marked the first ecumenical consensus on Trinitarian , though it included anathemas against Arian formulations. Arian sympathizers, including some Eastern , resisted, leading to ongoing imperial interventions; Athanasius, appointed of in 328 AD, faced five exiles for defending Nicene against semi-Arian compromises like homoiousios ("similar substance"). Persistent divisions prompted the Second Ecumenical Council at in 381 AD, under Emperor , which reaffirmed the and expanded it to address Pneumatomachian (Macedonian) denial of the Holy Spirit's divinity, declaring the Spirit "the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshipped and glorified." This Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, adopted by about 150 bishops, also condemned Apollinarianism, the view of that Christ assumed a but not a human mind, with the divine replacing it, thereby undermining full . Christological tensions escalated in the Antiochene-Alexandrian divide, culminating in the Nestorian controversy. , patriarch of from 428 AD, emphasized Christ's two distinct natures (divine and human) to the point of implying two persons (prosopa), rejecting "" (God-bearer) for Mary in favor of "Christotokos" (Christ-bearer) to avoid attributing divine birth to human generation. countered with a stronger stress on divine-human unity, arguing in his letters that Nestorius fractured the one Christ, compromising salvation's efficacy through a divided redeemer. The , convened in 431 AD by Emperor with around 200 bishops, primarily under Cyril's influence, deposed after examining his sermons and Cyril's Twelve Anathemas, affirming Mary's title and the personal unity of Christ while anathematizing separationist views. This decision, supported by Celestine I's legates, temporarily unified the church against but highlighted ongoing Eastern-Western interpretive rifts, setting the stage for further refinements.

Chalcedonian Definition and Oriental Schisms

The convened on October 8, 451, under the auspices of Emperor and Empress , in the city of across from , with approximately 520 to 630 bishops in attendance, primarily from the . This assembly aimed to resolve ongoing Christological disputes exacerbated by the "Robber Synod" of in 449, where Dioscorus of Alexandria had rehabilitated the monophysite and deposed bishops adhering to . The council condemned Dioscorus and , reinstated the orthodoxy of the first three ecumenical councils ( 325, 381, 431), and approved Pope Leo I's Tome, which articulated Christ's two natures—divine and human—united in one person. At its fifth session on October 22, 451, the council issued the , a doctrinal statement affirming that Christ is "one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, perfect in and also perfect in manhood; truly and truly man, of a reasonable soul and body, consubstantial with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood." It further declared the two natures united "inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably," preserving the distinct properties of each without division or separation, thus rejecting both Nestorian separation and Eutychian absorption into one nature. This formulation sought to synthesize the teachings of —emphasizing unity—with the Antiochene emphasis on distinction, while anathematizing extremes that compromised Christ's full or humanity. The Definition initially gained imperial enforcement through Marcian's Codex Chalcedonensis and was accepted by the papal legates, most Eastern bishops, and later the churches of Rome, , and under temporary compliance. However, it provoked immediate resistance in regions with strong Cyrillian traditions, particularly and , where critics argued it introduced a Nestorian duality by speaking of "two natures" post-union, potentially dividing the incarnate Word. Egyptian bishops, led by figures like Timothy II Aelurus, rejected the council outright, viewing it as a betrayal of Ephesus's miaphysite formula ("one incarnate nature of God the Word"). This dissent escalated into organized , with non-signers excommunicated and persecuted under (r. 527–565), who alternated between coercion and failed conciliations like the of 482. The Oriental schisms formalized the separation of miaphysite communities, forming what became known as the , including the of (established post-451 under anti-Chalcedonian patriarchs), the (tracing to , d. 538), the (rejecting around 491), and later the Ethiopian and Eritrean Churches. These bodies upheld a of one united nature () after the , interpreting Cyril's terminology against perceived Chalcedonian innovation, though historical evidence shows their rejection stemmed partly from linguistic ambiguities in Greek versus Syriac/Coptic terms and resentment toward Constantinople's canonical privileges asserted at (e.g., Canon 28 elevating the see). By the 6th century, miaphysite hierarchies operated independently, enduring imperial suppression but preserving distinct liturgical and monastic traditions amid the empire's weakening eastern frontiers. thus marked a lasting divide, with Oriental Orthodox regarding only the first three councils as ecumenical, while dyophysite churches (Byzantine Orthodox, Roman Catholic) upheld all seven.

Early Medieval Christendom (c. AD 600–1000)

Byzantine Iconoclasm and Missions to Europe

The , a theological controversy over the veneration of religious icons, unfolded in two phases during the 8th and 9th centuries, initiated by imperial decrees amid military pressures and doctrinal debates. Emperor Leo III (r. 717–741) proclaimed the first edict against icons in 726, arguing that their use constituted akin to pagan practices and contributed to divine disfavor evidenced by recent calamities, including Arab invasions and volcanic eruptions. This policy intensified under his son (r. 741–775), who convened a council in 754 that condemned icons and enforced their destruction, leading to persecutions of iconophiles, particularly monks, and strained relations with the Papacy, as Popes Gregory II and Gregory III rejected the edicts. The first phase concluded in 787 when Empress Irene (regent 780–797) convened the Second Council of Nicaea, which distinguished () of icons from worship (latreia) reserved for alone, affirming their role in honoring prototypes like Christ and saints through incarnational theology. revived in the second phase under Emperor Leo V (r. 813–820), who in 815 endorsed a synod condemning the 787 council and reinstating icon destruction, supported by figures like Patriarch John VII Grammatikos and influenced by military setbacks against . This period persisted through (r. 820–829) and (r. 829–842), with edicts banning icons in churches and public spaces, though resistance persisted among theologians like . The controversy ended definitively in 843, when Empress Theodora restored icons, establishing the "Triumph of Orthodoxy" feast still observed in . Concurrently, Christian missions expanded into pagan regions of Europe, integrating newly converted elites and tribes into the Church's structure. In the Germanic territories, Anglo-Saxon missionary Wynfrith, renamed Boniface by in 719, evangelized and from 716 onward, famously felling the sacred near around 723–724 to demonstrate Christian supremacy over pagan idols, earning him the title "Apostle of the Germans." Appointed bishop of in 722 and archbishop of in 745, Boniface organized dioceses under Frankish support from and , baptizing thousands before his martyrdom by pagans near in 754. From the Byzantine sphere, missions targeted Slavic peoples, exemplified by brothers Constantine (later , c. 827–869) and Methodius (c. 815–885), Thessalonian Greeks commissioned by Emperor in 862 to at Prince Rostislav's request. Developing the Glagolitic alphabet and translating liturgical texts into , they established a rite blending Byzantine and local elements, countering Frankish Latin dominance and facilitating Slavic despite later suppression by German clergy. These efforts, continued by Methodius as of from 870, laid foundations for Orthodox traditions among Moravians, , and Serbs, with their relics and script enduring as cultural artifacts. Further north, Anskar (801–865) initiated missions to (826) and (829), founding churches and schools under Carolingian auspices, though conversions remained superficial amid Viking resistance until the . These missions, often papal or imperial-backed, advanced ecclesiastical hierarchies and literacy, intertwining faith with political consolidation across .

Rise of Islam and Defensive Responses

Following the death of Muhammad in 632 AD, Arab Muslim forces under the Caliphs initiated rapid conquests that dismantled Christian administrative and ecclesiastical structures across the . By 634 AD, invasions targeted Byzantine-held and , culminating in the capture of Damascus in 635 AD and in 638 AD after a siege, placing the Holy City and its Christian population under Muslim sovereignty. Egypt followed, with surrendering by 642 AD, depriving the of vital grain supplies and the patriarchate of Alexandria of direct ties to . These losses stemmed partly from Byzantine exhaustion after Heraclius's campaigns against Persia (602–628 AD), which left imperial armies depleted and eastern provinces, including Monophysite Christian communities in and , alienated from Chalcedonian . The Battle of Yarmouk in August 636 AD marked a pivotal Byzantine defeat, where 's forces, numbering around 40,000–100,000, were routed by approximately 20,000–40,000 Arab troops, enabling the fall of key cities like Antioch (637 AD) and opening to further raids. , who had reclaimed these territories from Persia only years earlier, attempted theological overtures by promoting to unify Christians against external threats but died in 641 AD amid ongoing Arab advances. Under the (661–750 AD), expansions continued into Persia (fully conquered by 651 AD), ( taken in 698 AD), and Iberia (711 AD under , defeating Visigothic King at Guadalete), resulting in the subjugation of over 13 million square kilometers of formerly Christian or Zoroastrian lands. Christian communities in these regions became dhimmis, afforded limited protections in exchange for and restrictions on church-building or , though mass conversions were gradual rather than immediate. Byzantine defensive measures evolved under Emperor Leo III (r. 717–741 AD), who halted Umayyad momentum by repelling the second siege of Constantinople (717–718 AD) through naval use of Greek fire, which incinerated Arab fleets, and by reorganizing the empire into themata—self-sustaining military districts manned by farmer-soldiers to counter border threats. These reforms, combined with alliances and scorched-earth tactics, preserved core Anatolian territories and Anatolia's Christian heartland, though peripheral losses persisted until the 740s AD under Leo's son Constantine V. Leo's initiation of iconoclasm in 726 AD, banning religious images as idolatrous, drew partial inspiration from Islamic aniconism but arose primarily from Byzantine military desperation and interpretations of divine disfavor amid defeats. Intellectual responses included early theological polemics, notably from John of Damascus (c. 675–749 AD), a Christian official in Umayyad Damascus who, in his Fount of Knowledge, classified Islam as the "heresy of the Ishmaelites"—a deviant offshoot blending Arian Christology, Jewish rejection of the Trinity, and pagan elements—while refuting Muhammad as a false prophet who fabricated revelations without miracles or apostolic succession. John's work, drawing on Quranic citations, marked the first systematic Christian critique of Islam as a rival faith rather than mere Arabian tribalism, influencing later Byzantine and Western views amid ongoing coexistence and conflict. These efforts underscored Christianity's adaptation to minority status in conquered lands, where Copts, Jacobites, and Nestorians retained hierarchies but faced pressures that accelerated demographic shifts over centuries.

Carolingian Renaissance and Monastic Reforms

The , initiated under (r. 768–814), represented a concerted effort to revive classical learning and standardize Christian practices across the Frankish Empire, fostering intellectual and spiritual renewal after the disruptions of barbarian migrations. , crowned Emperor by on December 25, 800, viewed education as essential for ecclesiastical and imperial unity, establishing the Palace School at around 782 to train clergy and administrators in , Scripture, and the liberal arts. of York (c. 735–804), invited to the court in 782, became the era's preeminent scholar, directing curricula based on the (grammar, rhetoric, dialectic) and while reforming to align with Roman usages, thereby countering regional variations and enhancing doctrinal coherence. Monasteries emerged as pivotal institutions in this revival, serving as scriptoria where monks transcribed patristic texts, biblical manuscripts, and classical works using the innovative script, which facilitated accurate preservation and dissemination of Christian heritage. Charlemagne's capitularies, such as those issued in 789 and 802, mandated adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict (c. 530) for monastic communities, aiming to eliminate laxities like proprietary abbacies and secular intrusions while promoting uniform prayer, labor, and study. These measures built on earlier synodal efforts, including the Synod of Frankfurt in 794, which, though primarily addressing and Byzantine , reinforced imperial oversight of church discipline to ensure orthodoxy amid theological disputes. Benedict of Aniane (c. 747–821) spearheaded deeper monastic reforms, founding the of Aniane in 779 with a rigorous interpretation of Benedictine observance, emphasizing poverty, stability, and communal prayer over canonical leniency. Supported by and especially his son (r. 814–840), Benedict compiled the Concordia regularum (c. 817), harmonizing diverse rules under the Benedictine framework, which the Council of (816–817) decreed as binding for all Frankish monasteries, numbering over 200 by then. This standardization curbed abuses, elevated monastic scholarship—evident in the production of over 7,000 manuscripts during the period—and bolstered Christianity's institutional resilience, enabling missionary outreach and cultural continuity in .

High and Late Middle Ages (c. AD 1000–1500)

Investiture Controversy and Papal Supremacy

The Investiture Controversy emerged in the late 11th century as a conflict between the papacy and secular rulers, particularly the Holy Roman Emperor, over the appointment and investiture of bishops, who held both ecclesiastical authority and control over significant temporal estates. This struggle intensified under Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073–1085), whose Gregorian Reforms sought to eradicate simony—the sale of church offices—and enforce clerical celibacy, while asserting the church's independence from lay interference. Emperors had traditionally invested bishops with symbols of both spiritual (ring and crosier) and secular (scepter) power to ensure loyalty and influence over church lands, which comprised up to a third of imperial territories in Germany; Gregory viewed this as corrupting the church's divine mission and undermining papal oversight. Central to Gregory's claims of was the of 1075, a set of 27 propositions entered into his register, asserting that the Roman Church was founded by God alone, the pope alone could be called universal, he could depose or reinstate bishops without synodal trial, and that no one could him and that he could all, including secular rulers if they erred. These assertions drew on interpretations of biblical authority (e.g., Matthew 16:18–19, granting Peter the keys to the kingdom) and patristic traditions, but represented a shift from earlier dualism—where spiritual and temporal powers were distinct yet cooperative—toward papal dominance over both spheres when moral necessity demanded. Henry IV, King of (r. 1056–1105, crowned emperor in 1084), rejected these claims, continuing to invest bishops; in response, Gregory excommunicated Henry and absolved his vassals from oaths of on February 22, 1076, triggering rebellions among German princes who saw the king's authority weakened. Faced with potential deposition, Henry IV traversed the Alps in winter and arrived at in on January 25, 1077, where Gregory was under the protection of ; for three days, clad in penitent's wool and barefoot in the snow, Henry sought , which Gregory granted on January 28, temporarily restoring Henry's kingship but not resolving the underlying dispute. The episode highlighted the papacy's leverage through excommunication's spiritual and political ramifications—disrupting feudal oaths and alliances—yet Henry soon resumed investitures, leading to further conflict: he convened a at in 1080 to depose Gregory and install , capturing in 1084 with Norman aid against Gregory, who died in exile. Successors like Urban II (r. 1088–1099) sustained the reformist push, excommunicating Henry again and supporting his rivals. The controversy concluded with the on September 23, 1122, negotiated between (r. 1119–1124) and Emperor Henry V (r. 1106–1125), Henry's son. Under its terms, the emperor relinquished investiture with ring and crosier (spiritual symbols) across the empire, allowing free canonical election by clergy; temporal investiture (scepter) followed election in (before consecration) but after in and (post-consecration), preserving some imperial oversight of regalian rights like taxation and military service from church lands. This compromise entrenched papal control over spiritual appointments, diminishing and lay dominance, while affirming the papacy's supremacy in ecclesiastical matters—a precedent that bolstered later claims like those in Boniface VIII's (1302). The resolution reflected causal dynamics of mutual exhaustion: imperial overreach alienated allies, while papal alliances with nobles and reforms garnered support, shifting power toward a more centralized, independent church hierarchy.

Crusades, Scholasticism, and Cultural Flourishing

launched the at the on November 27, 1095, urging Western Christians to aid against Seljuk Turk incursions and reclaim from Muslim rule, promising spiritual indulgences for participants. The campaign culminated in the capture of on July 15, 1099, after a brutal siege that resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of Muslim and Jewish inhabitants, establishing in the . Subsequent expeditions, including the Second Crusade (1147–1149), which failed to recapture , and the Third Crusade (1189–1192), led by and following Saladin's 1187 reconquest of , achieved limited truces but no lasting territorial gains. The (1202–1204) deviated disastrously, sacking Christian instead of targeting , exacerbating East-West schisms. Later efforts, such as the Fifth (1217–1221) and the Ninth (1271–1272) led by , proved ineffective, with the final Christian stronghold at Acre falling to Mamluks in 1291, ending major Crusading to the . These campaigns, motivated by religious zeal to defend and secure routes amid Islamic expansions since the , also spurred trade, military innovations like , and cultural exchanges, though they entrenched mutual hostilities. Parallel to these military endeavors, emerged as a methodical synthesis of with rediscovered Aristotelian logic, peaking in the 12th and 13th centuries through monastic and cathedral schools. (c. 1033–1109) pioneered dialectical reasoning in works like (1077–1078), formulating the for God's existence as "that than which nothing greater can be conceived." (1079–1142) advanced critical inquiry in (c. 1120), compiling contradictory patristic opinions to resolve them via reason, influencing pedagogy despite condemnations for perceived rationalism. (1225–1274) culminated the tradition in (1265–1274), integrating Aristotle's philosophy—translated via Muslim intermediaries—with Augustinian faith, arguing that reason illuminates but does not supplant revelation, as in his Five Ways proving God's existence from motion, causation, and contingency. This approach, rooted in the Church's intellectual monopoly, fostered universities like (c. 1088, focused on ), (formalized c. 1200, theology-dominated under papal oversight), and (teaching by 1096), where trained in and to defend orthodoxy against heresies like . Cultural flourishing under ecclesiastical patronage manifested in , vernacular literature, and polyphonic music, symbolizing theological aspirations toward the divine. , rebuilt after a 1194 fire and consecrated in 1260, exemplified innovations like flying buttresses and rib vaults, enabling vast stained-glass windows depicting biblical narratives for illiterate worshippers. , begun in 1163, similarly advanced verticality and light as metaphors for heavenly ascent. Dante Alighieri's (completed c. 1320), an allegorical epic traversing Inferno, , and Paradiso, portrayed the soul's redemption through grace, drawing on Thomistic cosmology and Virgilian epic to critique corruption while affirming papal and imperial harmony under God. These achievements, funded by tithes and indulgences, reflected Christianity's role in preserving classical texts, standardizing , and inspiring art that prioritized eternal truths over temporal realism, amid a enabling urban cathedrals housing relics and fostering pilgrimage economies.

Black Death, Western Schism, and Prelude to Reform

The , a pandemic of that ravaged from 1347 to 1351, resulted in the deaths of approximately 25 to 50 million people, equating to 30 to 60 percent of the continent's population. suffered disproportionately high mortality—often exceeding 40 percent in affected areas—due to their roles in administering and burying the dead, leading to a severe shortage that forced bishops to ordain hastily trained replacements, many of whom lacked theological depth or moral rigor. This exacerbated perceptions of ecclesiastical incompetence, as the plague's indiscriminate toll defied clerical assurances of divine protection through prayer, , or efficacy, fostering widespread and questioning of the Church's intermediary role between God and . Extremist responses emerged, including bands that processed in self-mortifying parades seeking to avert further wrath, but these often devolved into violence against accused of well-poisoning, further tarnishing the Church's moral authority amid its failure to curb such pogroms uniformly. The Western Schism erupted in 1378 after Pope Gregory XI's death, when cardinals elected Urban VI in Rome but, dissatisfied with his temperament, withdrew to Anagni and installed antipope Clement VII in Avignon, creating parallel papal courts that split allegiance across Europe—France, Scotland, and Spain backing Avignon; England, the Empire, and Italy supporting Rome. The crisis worsened in 1409 when the Council of Pisa deposed both claimants and elected Alexander V, only producing a third line without resolving divisions, culminating in three simultaneous popes by 1410 and deepening nationalistic fissures that politicized the papacy and eroded its universal spiritual prestige. Resolution arrived at the Council of Constance (1414–1418), convened by Emperor Sigismund and Pisan pope John XXIII, which maneuvered the abdications of Gregory XII and John XXIII, deposed Benedict XIII, and unanimously elected Cardinal Oddo Colonna as Martin V on November 11, 1417, restoring singular occupancy of the Holy See. Yet the council's Haec sancta decree asserted conciliar superiority over popes in matters of faith and reform, promoting conciliarism as a counterweight to papal absolutism and highlighting structural vulnerabilities that persisted beyond the schism's end. These upheavals primed the Church for by amplifying exposures of , such as the sale of indulgences—remissions of temporal punishment for sins marketed to fund projects like the rebuilding of —and the accumulation of plural benefices by absentee clergy, practices that Wycliffe and others decried as simoniacal exploitation alien to . English (c. 1320–1384), dubbed the "Morning Star of the ," challenged , , and clerical endowments in treatises like De Ecclesia, advocating direct access to Scripture via his English translation and inspiring Lollard itinerant preachers who disseminated anti-hierarchical critiques despite under statutes like 1401's De heretico comburendo. Bohemian priest (c. 1370–1415), echoing Wycliffe, preached against indulgences, moral clerical decay, and lay , drawing crowds in ; summoned to Constance under safe-conduct promise, he was condemned for and burned on , 1415, igniting Bohemian Hussite resistance that underscored proto-Protestant demands for and congregational autonomy. The invention of the movable-type by around 1450 accelerated the circulation of such dissenting texts, while humanism's emphasis on original sources eroded scholastic deference, collectively eroding confidence in Rome's monopoly on truth and paving the way for sixteenth-century schisms.

Reformation and Counter-Reformation (c. AD 1500–1700)

Lutheran and Calvinist Breakaways

Martin Luther, a German theologian and Augustinian friar, sparked the Lutheran Reformation by publicly disputing the Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences through his Ninety-Five Theses, posted on the door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. These theses criticized indulgences as a corruption that undermined true repentance and faith, emphasizing instead sola fide (justification by faith alone) and the authority of Scripture over papal decrees. The document's rapid dissemination via the printing press fueled widespread debate, exposing abuses in the Church's fundraising for projects like St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Luther's defiance escalated when Pope Leo X issued the bull Exsurge Domine on June 15, 1520, demanding retraction of his writings; Luther burned the bull publicly on December 10, 1520, leading to his formal excommunication via the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem on January 3, 1521. Summoned to the Diet of Worms in April 1521, Luther refused to recant on April 18, declaring, "Unless I am convinced by Scripture and plain reason... I cannot and will not recant," invoking his conscience bound to the Word of God. Protected by Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, Luther translated the into German by 1522, making Scripture accessible to laity and accelerating the movement's spread among German princes. The , drafted primarily by Philipp Melanchthon and presented on June 25, 1530, at the , formalized Lutheran doctrines including the real presence of Christ in the (consubstantiation) and rejection of , gaining endorsement from six princes and two imperial cities. John Calvin, a French lawyer and theologian influenced by Lutheran ideas but developing a more systematic framework, advanced the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition with the first edition of his in March 1536, a concise emphasizing God's absolute sovereignty, total human depravity, , and double . Expelled from in 1538 amid resistance to his moral reforms, Calvin returned in 1541 to establish a theocratic consistory enforcing , transforming the city into a model for Reformed governance with mandatory , observance, and of vice. Calvinist diverged from notably in the Lord's Supper, viewing it as a spiritual presence of Christ rather than a corporeal one, and in stricter influencing civil life. By the 1550s, Calvinism spread via exiles and missionaries: to France, where it gained 2,000 congregations and noble converts known as by 1561; to under , who returned from in 1559 to lead the establishment of through the of 1560; and to the and , fostering resistance to Catholic monarchs. These breakaways fragmented Western , prioritizing scriptural authority and grace over ecclesiastical mediation, though both retained unlike later Anabaptists.

Catholic Responses and Council of Trent

Pope Paul III responded to Protestant doctrinal challenges and internal abuses by approving the Society of Jesus on September 27, 1540, through the bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiae, establishing the Jesuit order under to emphasize , activity, and theological defense of Catholicism. The same pope instituted the via the bull Licet ab initio on July 21, 1542, creating a centralized body to investigate and suppress heresy, targeting Protestant infiltration in amid reports of conversions among and . These measures preceded broader conciliar action, aiming to restore discipline and orthodoxy without conceding to or . The Council of Trent, convoked by Paul III, opened on December 13, 1545, and convened over 25 sessions in three phases—1545–1547 under Paul III and Paul IV, 1551–1552 under Julius III, and 1562–1563 under Pius IV—concluding on December 4, 1563. Interrupted by wars and papal changes, it drew primarily Italian and Spanish bishops, addressing Protestant critiques while reforming Catholic practices. Dogmatic decrees countered tenets: the fourth session (April 8, 1546) affirmed Scripture and as coequal sources of revelation, rejecting exclusive reliance on the . The sixth session (January 13, 1547) defined justification as involving infused faith, hope, charity, and , condemning the Protestant view of by faith alone. Further sessions upheld Catholic sacramental theology against reductions to two ordinances: the seventh (March 3, 1547) declared seven sacraments—, , , , extreme unction, orders, and matrimony—instituted by Christ and efficacious , conferring grace independently of recipient merit. The thirteenth (October 11, 1551) reaffirmed , the real presence of Christ in the , and the sacrificial nature of the Mass. Later decrees validated of saints and relics, , and regulated indulgences, while anathematizing denial of these. Reform canons targeted abuses exploited by reformers, mandating bishops' residence in dioceses, ending commendatory appointments to benefices without duties, and prohibiting simony and clerical concubinage. The twenty-third session (July 15, 1563) required seminaries in each for priestly formation, emphasizing moral and intellectual preparation to elevate clerical standards. These disciplinary measures, alongside doctrinal clarifications, sought to eliminate corruption—such as indulgence sales and —that had undermined credibility, fostering a revitalized Church capable of withstanding Protestant expansion.

Wars of Religion and Colonial Expansions

The Protestant Reformation's fragmentation of Western Christendom precipitated a series of conflicts known as the Wars of Religion, pitting Catholic monarchies and principalities against Protestant states and rebels from the mid-16th to mid-17th centuries. These wars blended theological disputes with dynastic ambitions and territorial rivalries, resulting in widespread devastation across ; estimates suggest that between 1500 and 1700, some portion of the continent experienced armed conflict for approximately 90% of the time. In , the Wars of Religion erupted in 1562 following the Massacre of Vassy, where Catholic forces killed dozens of Huguenot worshippers, igniting eight cycles of that claimed of thousands of lives and culminated in the of 1572, during which up to 30,000 Protestants were slain amid anti-Huguenot pogroms. The conflicts ended in 1598 with the , issued by Henry IV after his conversion to Catholicism, which granted limited religious toleration to , including freedom of worship in designated areas and civil rights, though it preserved Catholicism as the and excluded from Protestant strongholds. This edict represented a pragmatic truce rather than full equality, as subsequent monarchs eroded its protections, but it temporarily stabilized by prioritizing royal authority over sectarian purity. In the , religious tensions escalated into the (1618–1648), triggered by the Defenestration of , where Protestant nobles rebelled against Habsburg Emperor II's efforts to impose Catholicism via the 1629 of Restitution. Initially a Bohemian Protestant uprising against Catholic Habsburg centralization, the war drew in , , , and other powers, evolving into a broader struggle where religious pretexts masked Swedish bids for Baltic dominance and French containment of Habsburg encirclement. The conflict inflicted catastrophic losses, with the German population declining by 20–40% in affected regions due to battle, famine, disease, and mercenary depredations, totaling perhaps 4–8 million deaths continent-wide. It concluded with the in 1648, which enshrined cuius regio, eius religio from the 1555 but extended legal recognition to alongside and Catholicism, affirming territorial sovereignty and curtailing papal influence in secular affairs. This settlement marked a pivot toward state-centric , diminishing theocratic claims and fostering within principalities, though enforcement remained uneven and confessional animosities persisted. Concurrently, Catholic colonial expansions propelled Christianity's global dissemination, as and , bolstered by papal bulls like (1493), integrated evangelization with conquest and commerce under the system granting Iberian crowns missionary patronage. forces under subdued the by 1521, followed by Francisco Pizarro's Inca conquest in 1533, enabling Franciscan and Dominican friars to baptize millions—over 8 million indigenous converts in central alone by 1600—often through mass ceremonies tied to labor systems that coerced tribute and Christian observance. navigators established footholds in (from 1500) and , where , a Jesuit pioneer, arrived in in 1542 and in 1549, founding communities that numbered tens of thousands of catechumens before Tokugawa persecution decimated them by the early 17th century. The Society of Jesus, established in 1540 as a vanguard, spearheaded missions in Paraguay's reducciones (from 1609), aggregating over 100,000 Guaraní into self-sustaining Christian polities blending indigenous customs with Catholic liturgy, though these faced suppression by colonial authorities in 1767. These efforts, while yielding demographic growth—Catholicism encompassing much of the ' 10–20 million inhabitants by 1700—frequently involved , , and demographic collapse from diseases, reducing native populations by 80–90% in core regions. powers like the and lagged in missions until later, focusing initially on trade, but the era entrenched Christianity's hemispheric shift, with Iberian evangelization causal to both cultural transformation and exploitative hierarchies.

Enlightenment Challenges and Revivals (c. AD 1700–1900)

Deism, Rationalism, and Secular Critiques

, emphasizing a distant discernible through reason rather than revelation or miracles, rose in during the late 17th and early 18th centuries amid debates over versus scriptural authority. Key texts included John Toland's Christianity Not Mysterious (1696), which argued that divine truths must conform to human reason and rejected supernatural elements in scripture as incompatible with rationality. This English deist tradition influenced , where Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary (1764) critiqued ecclesiastical power and while affirming a providential order observable in nature. In the American context, deism appealed to figures like and , who edited biblical texts to excise miracles, viewing as a moral teacher rather than divine. 's (1794–1795), written during the , explicitly denounced the as inconsistent and priest-ridden, advocating as purified religion based on evidence from and ethics; it sold widely but provoked backlash from orthodox Christians. Deist critiques eroded confidence in revealed religion by prioritizing empirical observation, such as Newtonian mechanics, over faith-based doctrines, though they often retained belief in and moral law. Rationalist approaches to , prominent in German Enlightenment circles, applied reason to reinterpret or dismantle Christian doctrines, fostering that questioned scriptural inerrancy. Johann Semler’s Treatise on Free Investigation of the Canon (1771–1775) treated the as a human document varying in authority, separating ethical teachings from historical claims. Hermann Reimarus’s Wolfenbüttel Fragments (published anonymously by Gotthold Lessing, 1774–1778) portrayed as a failed political whose disciples fabricated the for self-interest, marking an early secular-historical assault on the Gospels’ reliability. These efforts, rooted in philological and historical analysis, treated scripture like any ancient text, undermining miracles and prophecy as products of rather than divine intervention. Secular critiques intensified in the 19th century with David Friedrich Strauss’s The Life of Jesus Critically Examined (1835–1836), which demythologized the Gospels by attributing supernatural elements to mythic accretions by early communities, influencing subsequent liberal to view as an ethical ideal rather than literal savior. Ernst Renan’s (1863) further humanized Christ as a sage whose divinity arose from later legend, reflecting positivist that privileged naturalistic explanations. ’s (1859) challenged Genesis literalism by proposing as the mechanism for biological diversity, prompting debates over creation; while some Christians, including Anglican clergy, reconciled it with theistic guidance, others saw it as evidence against , fueling and among intellectuals like Thomas Huxley. These developments, grounded in empirical and , shifted discourse from doctrinal orthodoxy to verifiable evidence, though Christian apologists countered with arguments for design and accommodated within providential frameworks.

Great Awakenings and Methodist Movements

The First Great Awakening, spanning the 1730s to 1740s in the British American colonies, marked a surge in evangelical preaching emphasizing personal conversion and emotional religious experience over formal ritual. Preacher Jonathan Edwards sparked early revivals in Northampton, Massachusetts, from 1734 to 1735, with hundreds reporting conversions amid fears of divine judgment, as detailed in his 1741 sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God." George Whitefield, an itinerant Anglican evangelist, amplified the movement through open-air sermons during his 1739–1740 colonial tour, drawing crowds exceeding 20,000 in Philadelphia and Boston, where listeners described profound spiritual conviction. This revival challenged established Congregational and Anglican churches, fostering growth in Baptist, Presbyterian, and emerging Methodist congregations by prioritizing individual piety and Bible-centered faith. In Britain, the parallel Evangelical Revival, often termed the Methodist movement, originated with John Wesley's "" at University in the late 1720s, focusing on methodical piety, charity, and scriptural discipline among students including Wesley's brother and . John Wesley's 1738 experience of assured faith propelled open-air preaching from 1739, forming societies for class meetings and accountability that grew to thousands by the 1740s, despite opposition from Anglican authorities. Whitefield, initially aligned with Wesley, diverged theologically by embracing Calvinist , leading to their 1741 split, yet both advanced field preaching that influenced transatlantic . expanded rapidly under Wesley's 250,000-mile travels, establishing circuits and lay preachers, with 135,000 adherents by his 1791 death, emphasizing free will, sanctification, and social holiness like . The Second Great Awakening, from roughly 1800 to 1835, built on these foundations with frontier camp meetings and urban revivals, promoting voluntary church membership and moral reform. Presbyterian James McGready initiated revivals in from 1797, culminating in the 1801 Cane Ridge meeting attended by up to 25,000, featuring ecstatic worship and mass conversions across denominations. Lawyer-turned-preacher Charles Finney led systematic revivals in from 1824 to 1837, claiming over 500,000 conversions through "new measures" like anxious benches for public repentance, influencing urban centers and theological shifts toward human agency in . These movements spurred Methodist and Baptist dominance in America, with Methodists growing from 4,000 members in 1771 to over 250,000 by 1816, while linking faith to and temperance without conflating gospel with politics. Overall, the Awakenings and reinvigorated against Enlightenment rationalism, prioritizing experiential faith and laying groundwork for later expansions.

Missionary Surge and Abolitionist Efforts

The Protestant missionary movement gained momentum in the late 18th century, fueled by evangelical revivals such as the , which emphasized personal conversion and global evangelism. In 1792, William Carey, a Baptist minister, founded the Baptist Missionary Society in England, publishing his influential pamphlet An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to advocate for overseas missions. Carey arrived in Calcutta, India, on November 8, 1793, establishing the first Protestant mission there despite opposition from the ; over 41 years, he achieved about 700 converts, translated the into Bengali, , Marathi, and other languages, and promoted education and social reforms like widow remarriage and sati abolition. The London Missionary Society, formed in 1795 as an interdenominational evangelical body, dispatched its first missionaries to in 1796, extending efforts to , , and ; it prioritized Bible translation and native-led churches, influencing figures like Robert Morrison, who arrived in in 1807. Subsequent organizations included the Church Missionary Society in 1799 and the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1810, marking the "great age of societies" that coordinated Protestant outreach to non-Christian regions. In , , arriving in in 1841 under the London Missionary Society, combined evangelism with exploration; his 1858–1864 Zambezi expedition mapped trade routes, documented the slave trade's horrors, and sought to open interior regions for missions, though it yielded limited direct converts. By the mid-19th century, these efforts had established stations across , , and the Pacific, training indigenous preachers and printing millions of Scriptures, though success varied amid cultural resistance and colonial entanglements. Parallel to this surge, evangelical Christians spearheaded , viewing as a moral abomination incompatible with biblical teachings on human dignity and imago Dei. , converted to around 1785, led parliamentary campaigns from 1787 onward as part of the , a network of Anglican reformers; his persistence culminated in the Slave Trade Act of 1807, banning British transatlantic trade, followed by the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, which freed over 800,000 slaves in the empire with £20 million compensation to owners. died on July 29, 1833, days after the bill's passage, attributing success to and prayer networks mobilizing thousands of petitions. These efforts intertwined with missions, as explorers like Livingstone highlighted 's inland persistence, prompting missionary advocacy for trade alternatives and legal protections, though some societies initially tolerated colonial before evangelical pressure shifted policies. By 1900, such faith-driven reforms had dismantled legal in much of the Christian world, influencing global norms despite opposition from economic interests.

20th Century Conflicts and Growth

World Wars, Totalitarianism, and Persecutions

During , Christian communities endured targeted genocides in the , where authorities initiated the on April 24, 1915, through mass arrests, deportations, and killings of Armenian Christians, resulting in approximately 1.5 million deaths by 1916. Assyrian and Greek Orthodox populations faced parallel massacres, with hundreds of thousands killed amid wartime chaos and policies. On European fronts, Christian chaplains provided spiritual support in trenches, sustaining soldiers' faith amid industrialized warfare; 179 chaplains perished in service, exemplifying clerical sacrifice. The interwar rise of amplified state hostility toward Christianity. In the , Stalin's regime escalated anti-religious campaigns from 1928 to 1941, demolishing or repurposing churches—reducing operational Orthodox sites from about 46,000 pre-1917 to fewer than 200 by 1939—and executing clergy en masse during the 1936–1937 , with estimates of 600 bishops, 40,000 priests, and 120,000 monks and nuns killed across the Soviet era. The League of Atheists, peaking at 5.5 million members by 1932, propagated while suppressing Christian practice as ideological opposition. In , Adolf Hitler's regime viewed as incompatible with National Socialism's pagan-tinged ideology, imposing the 1933 Reich Church policy to Nazify Protestant structures and persecuting dissenting clergy. The , formed in 1934 under leaders like and , rejected this subordination, leading to arrests and closures; Bonhoeffer was imprisoned in 1943 and hanged on April 9, 1945, for alleged involvement in anti-Hitler plots. intensified post-1937, targeting seminaries and pastors, though many mainline Protestants accommodated the regime to avoid dissolution. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) saw Republican forces unleash anti-Catholic violence, destroying over 7,000 churches and executing nearly 7,000 clergy—about 13% of Spain's priests—along with thousands of lay faithful, framing the Church as allied with fascism despite its institutional neutrality. World War II extended these pressures, with Nazi occupation closing churches in conquered territories and executing resisters, while Soviet forces continued repressing Eastern European Christians. Pope Pius XII, elected in 1939, pursued quiet diplomacy amid Axis advances, sheltering Jews in Vatican properties and monasteries; Jewish sources credit his networks with saving 700,000 to 860,000 Jews across Europe through false papers, hidden convents, and extradition interventions. However, his public reticence on the Holocaust—prioritizing Catholic institutional survival and fearing reprisals against converts and clergy—drew postwar criticism for enabling Nazi impunity, as private Vatican knowledge of exterminations dated to 1942 yet yielded no explicit encyclical condemnation. Empirical records affirm Pius's aid exceeded that of most neutral leaders, though debates persist on whether vocal protest could have mitigated genocide without provoking worse pogroms against Christian-Jewish hybrids or occupied churches.

Ecumenism, Vatican II, and Pentecostal Explosion

The ecumenical movement gained momentum in the early , building on pre-World War I initiatives like the 1910 Edinburgh Missionary Conference, which emphasized cooperation among Protestant missions. This culminated in the formation of the in 1948 at its inaugural assembly in , , uniting 147 member churches—primarily Protestant and Orthodox—for the purpose of fostering visible unity, joint witness, and collaborative action on social issues without compromising doctrinal distinctives. The council's establishment, delayed from 1937–1938 plans by , represented a Protestant-led effort to transcend denominational divisions amid global crises, though it excluded Roman Catholics and focused on "life and work" practical cooperation alongside "faith and order" doctrinal dialogue. Parallel to these developments, the Pentecostal movement erupted with the in , , beginning in April 1906 under , an African-American preacher, where participants reported and other spiritual gifts as hallmarks of baptism in the . The revival, held in a former stable with services three times daily for over three years, attracted thousands and spread globally through missionaries, birthing denominations like the (organized 1914) and emphasizing experiential faith over institutional unity. By the mid-20th century, had grown rapidly, particularly in the United States and , contrasting ecumenism's top-down approach with grassroots, Spirit-centered revivals that prioritized personal conversion and supernatural manifestations. The Second Vatican Council (Vatican II), convened by on January 25, 1959, and held in four sessions from October 1962 to December 1965, marked a pivotal Catholic engagement with modernity and . Producing 16 documents, including the Constitution on the Sacred (, December 4, 1963), which permitted vernacular languages in Mass and active lay participation, and the Decree on (, November 21, 1964), which encouraged dialogue with separated brethren while affirming Catholic fullness of truth. Other key texts like (November 21, 1964) redefined the Church's nature as the "," promoting among bishops and a renewed focus. Outcomes included liturgical reforms implemented post-1965, greater openness to non-Catholic Christians—evident in joint declarations like the 1966 meeting with the WCC—and a shift from defensiveness to dialogue, though these changes sparked internal debates over continuity with tradition. Meanwhile, Pentecostalism's expansion accelerated post-World War II, with charismatic renewals infiltrating mainline denominations by the 1960s–1970s, such as the starting in 1967 at . Global adherence surged from an estimated 1 million in 1900 to over 75 million by 1980, driven by conversions in the Global South and emphasis on , , and prosperity teachings, making it the fastest-growing Christian stream despite theological tensions with ecumenical bodies. This "explosion" reshaped Christianity's demographics, prioritizing numerical growth and experiential piety over institutional mergers, with denominations like the (founded 1907) reaching millions by century's end. and Vatican II fostered dialogue, but Pentecostalism's vitality highlighted limits to unity efforts, as many Pentecostals viewed ecumenical structures as diluting biblical fidelity.

Cold War Missionary Shifts and Liberation Theology Critiques

During the Cold War (1947–1991), communist regimes severely curtailed Christian missionary activities in Eastern Europe and Asia, prompting a strategic pivot toward the Global South. Following the 1949 Chinese Communist Revolution, foreign missionaries were expelled, with over 4,000 Protestant and Catholic personnel leaving by 1952, effectively ending organized Western missions in mainland China. Similar suppressions occurred across the Eastern Bloc, where Soviet-influenced governments nationalized church properties and restricted proselytism, reducing active missionaries from thousands pre-1945 to minimal underground operations by the 1950s. In response, U.S.-led evangelical organizations expanded efforts in Africa, Latin America, and non-communist Asia, framing missions as ideological bulwarks against atheism; for instance, Southern Baptist missions grew from 300 to over 1,000 personnel in Africa between 1950 and 1970, often aligning with anti-communist foreign policy. This shift emphasized rapid church planting and media outreach, with groups like the Christian Anti-Communism Crusade mobilizing resources to counter perceived Marxist threats. In , where proxy conflicts exacerbated poverty and inequality, emerged as a Catholic response, prioritizing structural and the "preferential ." Formalized at the 1968 Conference of Latin American bishops, it drew from Vatican II's call for social engagement but integrated Marxist-inspired analyses of class conflict and to advocate revolutionary change. Gustavo Gutiérrez's 1971 book A Theology of Liberation crystallized the movement, arguing that salvation encompassed political-economic liberation from oppression, influencing clergy and laity in countries like and amid land reforms and guerrilla insurgencies. Proponents, including , supported base communities (comunidades eclesiales de base) for grassroots activism, which by the numbered over 80,000 in alone, blending scriptural with critiques of . Critiques of , particularly from the Vatican under , centered on its subordination of spiritual redemption to temporal revolution and uncritical adoption of Marxist dialectics, which reduced human dignity to class categories. The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith's 1984 instruction, authored by Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, warned that such approaches risked "reduc[ing] to an earthly gospel," prioritizing violence-prone class struggle over evangelization and echoing atheistic despite protestations of . Empirical associations with armed groups, such as Colombian priest Camilo Torres joining the ELN guerrillas in 1965 (resulting in his death) or Nicaraguan clergy aiding Sandinista revolutionaries in 1979, fueled concerns over politicization; Ratzinger's 1986 follow-up document reiterated that true liberation stems from Christ, not ideological systems. Conservative analysts noted that while addressing real injustices, the theology's causal emphasis on systemic exploitation often overlooked personal sin and fostered dependency on state power, diverging from traditional in (1891). These Vatican interventions, upheld by John Paul II, curbed its institutional spread, though echoes persisted in progressive circles.

21st Century Global Dynamics

Shift to Global South and Demographic Growth

In the early , Christianity's demographic center shifted markedly from and to the Global South, defined as , , , and . By 2025, the Global South accounted for 69% of the world's approximately 2.66 billion , a proportion projected to rise to 78% by 2050, driven by higher fertility rates, conversions, and sustained activity in these regions. This transition marked a reversal from 1900, when over 80% of resided in the Global North, reflecting not only regional growth differentials but also and lower birth rates in and . Sub-Saharan Africa emerged as the epicenter of this expansion, surpassing all other regions with the largest Christian population by the 2010s. In 2020, 31% of global Christians—around 713 million—lived in , up from negligible shares a century prior, fueled by annual growth rates exceeding 2.5% through Pentecostal and evangelical movements. followed with 24% of adherents (approximately 552 million in 2020), where Catholicism remained dominant but , particularly , expanded rapidly amid and . contributed another 13%, with significant increases in and through underground churches and influences, though precise figures remain challenging due to government restrictions. Overall, the global Christian population grew by about 6% from 2010 to 2020, reaching 2.3 billion, outpacing declines in (22% share) and stabilizing in . This demographic pivot has reshaped Christianity's theological and cultural expressions, with the Global South favoring charismatic worship, prosperity teachings, and contextualized evangelism over the liberal mainline traditions prevalent in the North. Evangelicals and Pentecostals, comprising over 25% of by 2025, drove much of the growth, with projections estimating 3.3 billion total adherents by 2050, concentrated in high-fertility areas like and the of Congo. While absolute numbers increased, Christianity's global share of population held steady at around 31-33%, as non-Christian faiths like grew faster in percentage terms due to demographics alone. These trends underscore Christianity's adaptability to non-Western contexts, though challenges such as and persist in growth hotspots. In the , the proportion of adults identifying as Christian fell from 78% in to 63% in 2021, driven primarily by declines among mainline Protestants (from 18% to 11%) and evangelical Protestants (from 26% to 23%), though the rate of decline has slowed or stabilized since around 2019. Concurrently, the share of religiously unaffiliated adults ("nones") rose from 16% in to 29% in 2021, but growth has plateaued, with nones at 27% in 2023 per PRRI data, reflecting a potential ceiling after rapid increases in the . has also declined, with Gallup reporting weekly or near-weekly service participation dropping from 38% a decade prior to 30% in 2024, compared to higher rates of around 42% in the early . In , secularization has been more pronounced and longstanding, with average weekly rates hovering around 14% as of 2025, far below the contemporaneous U.S. figure of approximately 25% (adjusted for recent declines). Countries like the report attendance below 10%, while in and , regular participation is similarly low at 5-10%, with overall Christian identification eroding due to generational shifts away from institutional since the mid-20th century, accelerating in the amid cultural . The religiously unaffiliated share in reached 20-30% by the 2020s, correlating with higher education levels and economic prosperity, though empirical models suggest a predictable : first declining participation, then reduced personal importance of , and finally lower affiliation rates across generations. These Western trends contrast with global patterns, where Christianity's share in high-income countries dropped from 82% of adherents in 1900 to 33% by 2020, reflecting a demographic shift southward, but recent data indicate stabilization in the West, with some surveys showing slight upticks in among younger cohorts post-2020, potentially linked to cultural pushback against perceived excesses of secular ideologies. Factors contributing to declines include scandals in Catholic and Protestant institutions (e.g., abuse revelations peaking in the 2000s-2010s), rising , and state policies favoring , though causal analyses emphasize intergenerational transmission failures over deterministic theories. Despite these shifts, absolute numbers of Western Christians remain substantial, with the U.S. hosting over 200 million adherents as of 2020, underscoring that relative declines do not equate to outright disappearance.
Region/CountryChristian Affiliation (%) ~2000Christian Affiliation (%) ~2020Weekly Attendance (%) ~2020s
~77 63-65 25-30
(avg.)~70-75 (est. from trends)50-60 10-15
~70~46 <10 (est.)
~65~47 5-10 (est.)

Persecutions, Syncretism, and Renewal Movements

In the early 21st century, Christians faced intensified persecutions in multiple regions, particularly under Islamist insurgencies and authoritarian regimes. Between 2014 and 2017, the Islamic State (ISIS) conducted systematic attacks on Christian communities in Iraq and Syria, including forced conversions, executions, and destruction of churches, resulting in the displacement of over 100,000 Christians from the Nineveh Plains and recognition of these acts as genocide by entities such as the British government. In Nigeria, Boko Haram and allied groups targeted Christians, killing thousands in church attacks and village raids since 2009, with Open Doors reporting over 5,000 Christian deaths in 2023 alone amid escalating jihadist violence in the north. China's government intensified crackdowns on unregistered house churches post-2018, demolishing structures, detaining leaders, and enforcing Xi Jinping Thought in state-sanctioned congregations, yet Protestant adherents grew from an estimated 20-40 million in 2000 to over 100 million by 2020 despite such measures. Syncretism emerged as a notable phenomenon in rapidly growing Christian contexts of the Global South, where indigenous beliefs merged with biblical doctrines, often diluting orthodox teachings. In , independent churches incorporated ancestral spirit and prosperity rituals, with surveys indicating that up to 40% of self-identified Christians in countries like and practiced traditional healing or alongside , contributing to theological fragmentation. In , post-colonial persisted in popular Catholicism, blending saint with pre-Christian deities, as seen in Mexico's observances, though evangelical expansions critiqued such practices as idolatrous. Critics from evangelical perspectives argue this blending undermines scriptural exclusivity, fostering amid demographic shifts. Amid persecutions, renewal movements propelled Christianity's expansion, particularly through Pentecostal and charismatic expressions in the Global South. Africa's Christian population surged from 360 million in 2000 to over 700 million by 2020, driven by indigenous revivals emphasizing spiritual gifts and community resilience, with and hosting megachurches attracting millions. In , house church networks adapted via small-group fellowships and digital , sustaining growth rates of 7-10% annually despite raids, as believers interpreted suffering as purifying faith per precedents. Latin American Pentecostalism similarly exploded, with Brazil's claiming 20 million adherents by 2020, fostering social outreach that countered through Bible-centered discipleship. These movements prioritized experiential renewal over institutional forms, correlating with net global Christian growth exceeding projections by 2024.

References

  1. https://www.bartehrman.com/history-of-christianity/
  2. https://pressbooks.wmich.edu/seeingtheworldthroughreligionandculture/chapter/historical-overview-of-christianity/
  3. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/important-events-chronological-listing
  4. https://www.library.pima.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2021/08/History-of-Christianity-6610.pdf
  5. https://www.bartehrman.com/second-temple-judaism/
  6. https://schechter.edu/second-temple-judaism-and-the-hannukah-story/
  7. https://history.umd.edu/hist291-jewish-texts-and-cultures-second-temple-periods-lapin
  8. https://www.gov.il/en/departments/general/history-the-second-temple-period
  9. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/pharisees-sadducees-and-essenes
  10. https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/afterlife-and-resurrection-beliefs-second-temple-period
  11. https://www.christiancentury.org/interviews/jesus-second-temple-era-jew
  12. https://www.bibleodyssey.org/timeline-gallery/second-temple-judaism/
  13. https://pursuingveritas.com/2015/02/10/messianic-expectations-of-second-temple-judaism/
  14. https://vridar.org/2018/12/04/messiahs-and-eschatology-in-second-temple-judaism/
  15. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2702&context=etd
  16. https://digitalcollections.tyndale.ca/bitstream/handle/20.500.12730/2194/Reynolds_Benjamin_2018f.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  17. https://jamestabor.com/john-the-baptist-jesus-and-the-dead-sea-scrolls-a-cosmic-messiah-who-raises-the-dead/
  18. https://www.cslewisinstitute.org/resources/did-jesus-fulfill-old-testament-prophecies-of-a-coming-messiah/
  19. https://www.equip.org/articles/fulfilled-prophecy-as-an-apologetic/
  20. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/16/4/449
  21. https://rsc.byu.edu/sites/default/files/pub_content/pdf/10%2520Matson%2520Fourth%2520Gospel_final.pdf
  22. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/jesus-historical-jesus/when-was-jesus-born-bc-or-ad/
  23. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4397&context=byusq
  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380459331_Determining_the_Birth_Year_of_Jesus_Using_Ancient_Sources_A_Compilation_of_Ancient_Informants_-_David_Blocker
  25. https://rsc.byu.edu/how-new-testament-came-be/first-century-sources-life-jesus
  26. https://ehrmanblog.org/nazareth-in-the-time-of-jesus-the-archaeological-record/
  27. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%202:41-52&version=NIV
  28. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%203:13-17&version=NIV
  29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334577128_When_Was_Jesus_Born_A_Critical_Examination_of_Jesus%27_Birth_Year_as_Presented_in_the_Infancy_Narratives
  30. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08377a.htm
  31. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+1%3A14-15&version=ESV
  32. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+5-7&version=ESV
  33. https://www.scu.edu/media/ignatian-center/santa-clara-lecture/Meier.pdf
  34. https://historyforatheists.com/2022/03/jesus-mythicism-8-jesus-history-and-miracles/
  35. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+10%3A46-52%3BMatthew+8%3A1-4%3BMark+2%3A1-12&version=ESV
  36. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+5%3A1-20&version=ESV
  37. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+4%3A35-41%3BJohn+6%3A1-14%3BMatthew+14%3A22-33&version=ESV
  38. https://rsc.byu.edu/vol-9-no-3-2008/miracles-jesus-gospel-john
  39. https://www.bethinking.org/jesus/ancient-evidence-for-jesus-from-non-christian-sources
  40. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+1%3A16-20&version=ESV
  41. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+6%3A12-16%3BMark+3%3A13-19&version=ESV
  42. https://www.gotquestions.org/order-calling-Jesus-disciples.html
  43. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+4%3A10-12%3BMatthew+10%3A1-14&version=ESV
  44. https://www.jstor.org/stable/90008863
  45. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+26-27&version=ESV
  46. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+13&version=ESV
  47. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+26%3A57-68&version=ESV
  48. https://www.bartehrman.com/when-did-jesus-die/
  49. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/new-testament-studies/article/dating-the-death-of-jesus-memory-and-the-religious-imagination/0458FC0CA55BEF810BCC411AC2765860
  50. https://cbs.mbts.edu/2020/04/08/april-3-ad-33-why-we-believe-we-can-know-the-exact-date-jesus-died/
  51. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/encyclopaedia_romana/calendar/jesus.html
  52. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Corinthians+15%3A3-8&version=ESV
  53. https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/historical-evidence-for-the-resurrection
  54. https://www.reasonablefaith.org/media/debates/is-there-historical-evidence-for-the-resurrection-of-jesus-the-craig-ehrman
  55. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+1%3A3-11&version=ESV
  56. https://www.esv.org/resources/esv-global-study-bible/chart-40-04/
  57. https://www.gotquestions.org/Ascension-Day.html
  58. https://bibleproject.com/articles/what-is-pentecost-and-why-is-it-important/
  59. https://www.1517.org/articles/the-old-testament-pentecost-why-did-jesus-pour-out-his-spirit-on-this-particular-day
  60. https://blog.cph.org/study/digging-deeper-into-scripture-the-day-of-pentecost-acts-2-1-21
  61. https://ehrmanblog.org/the-historical-accuracy-of-acts/
  62. https://insight.org/resources/bible/the-history-of-the-early-church/acts
  63. https://www.imb.org/2018/11/28/4-things-church-wildfire/
  64. https://specs12.wordpress.com/2025/09/09/foundation-of-acts-beginning-in-jerusalem/
  65. https://voice.dts.edu/article/how-did-the-early-church-do-evangelism-spoiler-alert-they-didnt/
  66. https://www.blueletterbible.org/study/paul/timeline.cfm
  67. https://bereanbiblesociety.org/the-timeline-of-pauls-ministry/
  68. https://www.understandchristianity.com/timelines/chronology-pauls-ministry/
  69. https://e360bible.org/blog/timeline-of-pauls-life-and-missionary-journeys/
  70. https://www.dwellcc.org/essays/chronological-study-pauls-ministry
  71. http://christianityinview.com/paulstimeline.html
  72. https://www.biola.edu/blogs/good-book-blog/2021/chronology-of-the-apostle-paul
  73. https://www.theologyfortherestofus.com/pauls-four-missionary-journeys-the-complete-guide/
  74. https://www.esv.org/resources/esv-global-study-bible/chart-44-06/
  75. https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Pauline_Chronology.htm
  76. https://www.biblestudytools.com/commentaries/csb-study-bible/what-really-happened-to-the-apostles.html
  77. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/people-in-the-bible/the-quest-for-the-historical-paul/
  78. https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2021/05/14/top-ten-discoveries-related-to-paul/
  79. https://www.bartehrman.com/apostle-paul-timeline/
  80. https://medium.com/the-bible-and-scholarship/the-dating-of-pauls-letters-51b6940f78f7
  81. https://www.richardcarrier.info/archives/18613
  82. https://ehrmanblog.org/why-date-the-gospels-after-70-ce/
  83. https://vridar.org/2022/05/05/logic-and-the-date-of-the-gospel-of-mark/
  84. https://progressivechristianity.org/resource/the-date-of-marks-gospel/
  85. https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2019/02/15/the-earliest-new-testament-manuscripts/
  86. https://library.duke.edu/papyrus/texts/manuscripts.html
  87. https://www.gotquestions.org/life-James.html
  88. https://rsc.byu.edu/sperry-symposium-classics-new-testament/jerusalem-council
  89. https://readingacts.com/2013/04/19/james-as-a-leader-in-jerusalem/
  90. https://www.biblicaltraining.org/library/church-government-in-the-apostolic-age
  91. https://thesimplepastor.co.uk/leadership-in-the-early-church/
  92. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/persecution-in-early-church-timeline
  93. https://www.thecollector.com/early-christian-martyrs/
  94. https://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/texts/pliny.html
  95. https://insight.org/article/heroes-of-the-ancient-church
  96. https://www.gotquestions.org/Decian-persecution.html
  97. https://landmarkevents.org/decian-persecution-of-the-church-begins-ad-250/
  98. https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/diocletians-great-persecution
  99. https://christian-history.org/diocletian.html
  100. https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm
  101. https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103.htm
  102. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/trinity-history.html
  103. https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc2.v.xiv.i.html
  104. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/heresy-in-the-early-church-timeline
  105. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09645c.htm
  106. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10521a.htm
  107. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10448a.htm
  108. https://orthodoxwiki.org/Timeline_of_Church_History_%28Ante-Nicene_Era_%28100-325%29%29
  109. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1737/constantines-conversion-to-christianity/
  110. https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/source/edict-milan.asp
  111. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/edict-of-milan
  112. https://restitutio.org/2023/04/28/493-early-church-history-11-the-constantinian-shift/
  113. https://brewminate.com/the-constantinian-shift-romes-transition-from-pagan-tolerance-to-christian-supremacy/
  114. https://maryourhelp.org/e-books/all-ecumenical-councils/All-ecumenical-councils.pdf
  115. https://earlychurch.org.uk/arianism.php
  116. https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/28162.htm
  117. https://churchhistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Nicene-parallels.pdf
  118. https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/church-history/fourth-century/the-second-ecumenical-council
  119. https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3810.htm
  120. https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum04.htm
  121. https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3811.htm
  122. https://britishorthodox.org/glastonburyreview/issue-112-the-oriental-orthodox-rejection-of-chalcedon/
  123. https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/centuries-and-centuries-of-fighting
  124. https://www.britannica.com/event/Iconoclastic-Controversy
  125. https://smarthistory.org/byzantine-iconoclasm/
  126. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Boniface
  127. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/12/6/417
  128. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/Missions-and-monasticism
  129. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/medieval-times/spread-of-islam/a/the-rise-of-islamic-empires-and-states
  130. https://catholic.heritage-history.com/index.php?&s=study-info&f=saints_heroes&h=islam&type=conquests
  131. https://africame.factsanddetails.com/article/entry-841.html
  132. https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2003/2003.07.06/
  133. https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-arab-conquests-legends-and-historical-reality/
  134. https://historyguild.org/the-heraclian-and-isaurian-dynasties/
  135. https://firstthings.com/christianity-face-to-face-with-islam/
  136. https://www.answering-islam.org/history/byzantine_responses.html
  137. http://orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx
  138. https://islammeetsorthodoxy.wordpress.com/2015/06/15/st-john-of-damascus-on-islam-pt-2-against-the-heresy-of-the-ishmaelites/
  139. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alcuin
  140. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Carolingian-Renaissance
  141. https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/carolingian-reform
  142. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06236a.htm
  143. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02467a.htm
  144. https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/benedict-of-aniane-saint
  145. http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/dict_pap.html
  146. http://legalhistorysources.com/ChurchHistory220/TopicFive/DictatusPapae2.html
  147. https://history.hanover.edu/hhr/17/HHR2017-taylor.html
  148. https://www.medievalists.net/2017/08/walk-canossa-tale-emperor-pope/
  149. https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/source/worms1.asp
  150. https://chertseytiles.holycross.edu/crusades/
  151. https://onlinecampus.fcps.edu/media2/Social_Studies/WHGII_2010/Era4Topic23/Resources/The_First_Crusade.pdf
  152. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/major-crusades-to-the-east-timeline
  153. https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/the-crusades-1095-1291
  154. https://www.usu.edu/markdamen/1320hist&civ/chapters/15crusad.htm
  155. https://faculty.fordham.edu/klima/blackwell-proofs/MP_A02.pdf
  156. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/myl/AdaPalmerScholasticism.pdf
  157. https://intellectualproperties.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj24701/files/media/file/7._medieval_university_0.pdf
  158. https://catholiceducation.org/en/education/the-catholic-church-and-the-creation-of-the-university.html
  159. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/81/
  160. https://dantecomedy.com/welcome/introduction/introduction-to-the-poem/
  161. https://www.cathedrale-chartres.org/en/cathedrale/monument/architecture/the-13th-century-cathedral/
  162. https://hosted.lib.uiowa.edu/histmed/plague/
  163. https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/lessons-from-the-black-death
  164. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1541/religious-responses-to-the-black-death/
  165. https://egrove.olemiss.edu/hon_thesis/682/
  166. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/great-papal-schism
  167. https://www.walksinrome.com/blog/november-11th-1417-the-election-of-pope-martin-v-and-the-end-of-the-western-schism
  168. https://pages.uoregon.edu/dluebke/Reformations441/441Conciliarism.htm
  169. https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/E0/04/64/77/00001/WEBER_R.pdf
  170. https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/the-morning-star-of-the-reformation
  171. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/study/module/hus
  172. https://www.logos.com/grow/john-wycliffe-morning-star/
  173. https://guides.loc.gov/martin-luther-priest-heretic-outlaw
  174. https://timeline.press.jhu.edu/lut_reformation/1517-1617
  175. https://iep.utm.edu/luther/
  176. https://www.firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/protestant-reformation/
  177. https://www.laciviltacattolica.com/luthers-excommunication-500-years-later/
  178. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/april-18/luther-defiant-at-diet-of-worms
  179. https://lutheranreformation.org/history/presentation-augsburg-confession/
  180. https://g3min.org/the-four-cs-of-doctrinal-history-the-lutheran-augsburg-confession/
  181. https://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes/
  182. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/calvin-publishes-institutes
  183. https://www.faithlutherancorning.org/lutheran-vs-reformed
  184. https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/the-calvinist-reformation/
  185. https://www.ibelieve.com/christian-living/calvinism-versus-lutheranism.html
  186. https://loyolacollege.edu/jesuits/docs/ResourceMaterials.pdf
  187. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/it-happened-today/7/21
  188. https://inquisition.library.nd.edu/history-timeline
  189. https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent.htm
  190. https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent/sixth-session.htm
  191. https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent/seventh-session.htm
  192. https://colorado.pressbooks.pub/europesince1600concise/chapter/chapter-1-religious-wars/
  193. https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/the-eight-wars-of-religion-1562-1598/
  194. https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/the-edict-of-nantes-1598/
  195. https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/the-thirty-year-war-1618-1648/
  196. https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-65/jfq-65_22-26_Devine.pdf?ver=sSVZM3Iz6TuGV3eDKgGplQ%253D%253D
  197. https://brewminate.com/european-missionaries-and-the-spread-of-christianity-1500-1750/
  198. https://catholic.heritage-history.com/index.php?&s=study-info&f=saints_heroes&h=missions&type=overview
  199. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/travelspanishmissions/significance-of-missions.htm
  200. https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/eighteen/ekeyinfo/deism.htm
  201. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/
  202. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel02.html
  203. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/the-rise-of-biblical-criticism-in-the-enlightenment/
  204. https://victorianweb.org/religion/higherchron.html
  205. https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/religion/darwin-and-church
  206. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/first-great-awakening
  207. https://christianity.com/church/church-history/timeline/1701-1800/the-great-awakening-11630212.html
  208. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/great-awakening-peaks
  209. https://www.americanhistorycentral.com/entries/first-great-awakening/
  210. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/wesleys-timeline
  211. https://people.smu.edu/mappingthega/stories/s15/
  212. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/wesley-vs-whitefield
  213. https://revival-library.org/histories/1730s-great-awakening-in-britain/
  214. https://www.thearda.com/us-religion/history/timelines/entry?etype=1&eid=326
  215. https://revival-library.org/histories/1790-second-great-awakening-us/
  216. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-ushistory1/chapter/the-second-great-awakening/
  217. https://www.pbs.org/thisfarbyfaith/journey_2/p_3.html
  218. https://renewaljournal.com/2014/04/14/eighteenth-century-revivals-thegreatawakening-andevangelicalrevivals/
  219. https://www.thearda.com/us-religion/history/timelines/entry/?etype=3&eid=45
  220. https://footprintsintoafrica.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/History-of-Missions-in-the-19th-Century.pdf
  221. https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Carey
  222. https://landmarkevents.org/william-careys-india-mission-1793/
  223. https://www.britannica.com/topic/London-Missionary-Society
  224. https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nineteen/nkeyinfo/fmmovement.htm
  225. https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Livingstone/The-Zambezi-expedition
  226. https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/the-missionary-movement/
  227. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/william-wilberforce-and-the-abolition-of-the-slave-trade-christian-history-timeline
  228. https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Wilberforce
  229. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/wilberforce_william.shtml
  230. https://hullhistorycentre.org.uk/research/research-guides/william-wilberforce.aspx
  231. https://christian.org.uk/features/on-this-day-in-1834-the-abolition-of-slavery-act-comes-into-effect/
  232. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-armenian-genocide-1915-16-overview
  233. https://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/the-ottoman-christian-genocide
  234. https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/priests/armychaplains_1.shtml
  235. https://www.history.com/articles/joseph-stalin-religion-atheism-ussr
  236. https://www.acton.org/pub/commentary/2008/12/10/church-and-terror-state
  237. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2017/oct/26/why-the-soviet-attempt-to-stamp-out-religion-failed
  238. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/dietrich-bonhoeffer
  239. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/christians-against-nazis
  240. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/claretian-martyrs-are-executed-spain
  241. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/pope-pius-xii-and-the-holocaust
  242. https://www.catholicleague.org/a-righteous-gentile-pope-pius-xii-and-the-jews/
  243. https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/academic/pius-and-the-holocaust.html
  244. https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/library-documents-on-pius-xii-and-the-holocaust-1707
  245. https://www.christianity.com/church/church-history/centuries/20th-century-11631980.html
  246. https://www.oikoumene.org/about-the-wcc/history
  247. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2006/04/24/moved-by-the-spirit-pentecostal-power-and-politics-after-100-years2/
  248. https://www.apostolic.edu/the-pentecostal-20th-century-by-vinson-synan/
  249. https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/index.htm
  250. https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2022-10/vatican-ii-council-60th-anniversary-video-history-background.html
  251. https://irbe.library.vanderbilt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/34115268-49d3-4de4-aac9-d57f14c04143/content
  252. https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1149&context=ree
  253. https://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1069&context=facwork_conferencepresentations
  254. https://www.transcend.org/tms/2021/11/u-s-cold-war-interventionism-1945-1990/
  255. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP97R00694R000600050001-9.pdf
  256. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/liberation-theology/
  257. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19840806_theology-liberation_en.html
  258. https://collected.jcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1078&context=honorspapers
  259. https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2025/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2025.pdf
  260. https://www.gordonconwell.edu/center-for-global-christianity/resources/status-of-global-christianity/
  261. https://www.pcpcommunity.org/resources/the-state-of-global-christianity---fall-learning-lab-series-
  262. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/
  263. https://www.frontierpartners.org/global-christianity-surges
  264. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/christian-population-change/
  265. https://research.lifeway.com/2025/02/11/9-encouraging-trends-for-global-christianity-in-2025/
  266. https://goodfaithmedia.org/global-christian-population-projected-to-reach-3-3-billion-by-2050/
  267. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/
  268. https://lausanne.org/global-analysis/is-christianity-shrinking-or-shifting
  269. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/02/26/decline-of-christianity-in-the-us-has-slowed-may-have-leveled-off/
  270. https://prri.org/research/census-2023-american-religion/
  271. https://news.gallup.com/poll/642548/church-attendance-declined-religious-groups.aspx
  272. https://www.graphsaboutreligion.com/p/the-united-states-is-more-religious
  273. https://www.graphsaboutreligion.com/p/how-much-is-religion-fading-in-other
  274. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12365078/
  275. https://www.economist.com/international/2025/06/12/the-west-has-stopped-losing-its-religion
  276. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2025/09/02/how-religion-declines-around-the-world/
  277. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/12/21/key-findings-from-the-global-religious-futures-project/
  278. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/59786a0040f0b65dcb00000a/042-Persecution-of-Christians-in-the-Middle-East.pdf
  279. https://www.opendoors.org/en-US/persecution/countries/nigeria/
  280. https://bitterwinter.org/chinas-religious-freedom-crisis-escalates-christian-churches-face-comprehensive-suppression/
  281. https://freedomhouse.org/report/2017/battle-china-spirit-christianity-religious-freedom
  282. https://scholarcommons.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&context=newhorizons
  283. https://owlcation.com/humanities/christianpagan-syncretism-in-post-conquest-latin-america
  284. https://verbumetecclesia.org.za/index.php/ve/article/view/3251/9001
  285. https://www.bu.edu/cgcm/2016/11/21/christian-renewal-movements-in-the-global-south/
  286. https://www.chinasource.org/resource-library/articles/spirit-empowered-chinese-house-churches-1/
  287. https://crcc.usc.edu/report/moved-by-the-spirit-pentecostal-and-charismatic-christianity-in-the-global-south/evolutions/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.